Indian Council of World Affairs

Abstract

India is gearing up for its third phase of nuclear transition to achieve its domestic twin-targets: Viksit Bharat by 2047 and the Net Zero Emission target by 2070. On the domestic front, India has started investing in the research and development of its vast thorium reserves. There is a potential for India to explore the use of thorium as an alternate fuel for nuclear energy generation both domestically and globally. It can further enhance India’s soft power through knowledge sharing, thereby shaping future nuclear energy research.

Introduction

Despite the deliberate effort to lower carbon emissions, urbanisation and climate change have increased the energy demand. With increased focus on small, safe, and scalable nuclear energy, renewables are playing a bigger role in the energy basket. India intends to rapidly augment its nuclear energy generation capacity to 100 gigawatts (GW) by 2047 to meet 10 per cent of its total energy needs. While pursuing its national development agenda, this will help meet its international pledges to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The origins of India's civil nuclear energy programme may be traced back to Homi Bhabha's early vision of a three-stage nuclear plan. Although the initial phases were heavily dependent on the Russian technology, at its core, strategic decoupling has been India’s target for a long-term sustainable nuclear plan.^[i] India always believed in domesticating and developing indigenous technology. In March 2024, India commissioned its indigenous Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam, heralding its progress into the second stage of nuclear technologies.^[ii] The second part of the second phase is marked by the successful operationalisation of the PFBR, which is more than a technological transition. With the molten salt cooling technology being introduced in the reactors, India is close to leveraging its vast thorium reserves for domestic use. India’s civil nuclear programme has focused on moving away from using uranium and becoming self-sufficient with thorium for two primary reasons. First, India has reserves of thorium for the sustainable generation of nuclear energy, and secondly, with the fuel source within the country, it reduces dependency and strengthens energy security. By progressing micro/small modular reactor (SMR) technology and looking at High-assay low-enriched uranium (HALEU)^[iii] with thorium, India can achieve maximum fuel efficiency and minimum waste, a goal envisaged in the third phase of its nuclear energy plan.

As India gears up to enter the third phase of its nuclear energy plan, its investment in thorium can open up multiple opportunities, including potential global partnerships, especially South-South Cooperation in terms of nuclear energy partnerships.

Thorium Diplomacy

As India expands its civil nuclear energy programmes and explores the global energy market, its investment in thorium should focus on three key areas. First, it needs to enhance its domestic production and scout for opportunities to establish itself as a supplier of this alternative fuel. Second, it has to work with partner nations to encourage wider acceptance of thorium as a fuel source, and lastly, it has to strengthen its thorium diplomacy by promoting its reactors and facilitating knowledge transfer through research and development with partner countries.

What is Thorium Diplomacy?

With the development of new technologies, such as Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWR) and Molten Salt Reactors, which need extensive thorium use for commercial nuclear power generation, the global energy market is rapidly expanding. These provide increased safety features and improved operational efficiency. Besides, this transition can offset the increased cost of uranium imports owing to its limited natural supply. Thorium is a naturally occurring material rather than a fissile one, available in vast quantities in India. So, it cannot be directly used to generate energy through a fission reaction. Its resistance to proliferation makes thorium an appealing alternative to conventional fuels like uranium, which tend to produce more radioactive waste.

Why Should India Encourage a Shift to Thorium?

The World Nuclear Organization reports India to be the country with the largest thorium reserves.^[iv] Beyond its energy imperative, India has a significant potential to utilise this natural resource as a diplomatic asset. Thorium’s less politically sensitive and significantly non-proliferative nature makes it a viable option for countries seeking energy independence.  As a cleaner and stable alternative to uranium, its demand is likely to rise exponentially in the future. India can enhance its diplomatic position by collaborating with countries looking to reduce fossil fuel use. It can also reduce the burden on countries heavily reliant on uranium imports for nuclear power generation. The Nuclear Energy Mission for Viksit Bharat is poised to accelerate nuclear power development, positioning India as a global leader in advanced nuclear technology by 2047.^[v] It is an appropriate moment for India to develop a strategic roadmap that aligns with its domestic objective of achieving strategic autonomy while adhering to international regulations in its negotiations. The mission can be seen as an opportunity to maintain its independence in the development of its nuclear capabilities by investing in indigenous nuclear technology, research & development, and innovation. While being self-reliant, India aims to bridge the knowledge gap through collaborative research and capacity building, thereby balancing national interest with global responsibility.

Envisaging the Path to Thorium Diplomacy

There is a need for India to build a roadmap to develop its thorium diplomacy for the future. The following are some aspects that it may consider as it develops its thorium diplomacy.  First, continue to invest in research and development, as India has demonstrated its ability to build capacity, train personnel, and transfer knowledge in nuclear programmes. A testament to its commitment to collaboration is India’s participation in Bangladesh’s Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant along with the Russian State Nuclear Corporation, “Rosatom”. India’s contribution in terms of capacity building, knowledge transfer, and training has actively emphasised its global strategic engagements with domestic strategic decoupling.^[vi]

India can use this experience to strengthen similar partnerships with Russia and also explore similar collaborations and training alliances with other partners, such as the US and France. India could express its interest in being part of tripartite or multilateral agreements, providing the technical know-how and leadership in safe and sustainable nuclear initiatives. For example, India could explore opportunities for possible collaboration with the US in its nuclear venture in South Africa.^[vii]Further, India can offer to integrate collaborative research in the development of thorium as an alternative fuel through the BRICS Nuclear Energy Forum^[viii]. Prospects also lie in introducing thorium for sustainable energy infrastructure into the energy market with substantial growth potential.

Second, India’s growing proficiency in SMRs, which have safer operation, scalable deployment, and cheaper capital costs, provides an attractive offer for developing countries looking for small-scale operations. These reactors, which can be adjusted to different grid capacities, might be co-developed or exported under frameworks for civil nuclear cooperation. This puts it in a position to assist developing countries in Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America that face energy deficiency.^[ix] Further development of HALEU-Thorium mix that India could champion may significantly enhance the efficiency of small modular reactors, which could be exported in the future. 

Third, India needs to strengthen its domestic production capabilities and invest further in scaling up. Its final outlook should be directed from being a ‘capacity builder’ to a ‘technology exporter’.

Challenges to Partnerships

Several structural and diplomatic barriers challenge diversifying nuclear partnerships on the global front. Structural challenges include India’s limitations in operational readiness for the industrial base and reaching out to its partner nations. Even though India leads the way in thorium research, it is still not a part of multilateral organisations like the Generation IV International Forum (GIF)^[x] that focus on thorium-based systems. This is perhaps because, considering the PFBR’s strategic and commercial significance, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)^[xi] has refused to accept international protections. The lag in participation can restrain the growth and transfer of R&D even with excellent non-proliferation credentials.

Conclusion

Thorium diplomacy in knowledge transfer, research and development, and capacity building can open up feasible and sustainable energy solutions for India and the world. The prospects also hold India’s involvement in sharing indigenous, safe, and non-weaponised solutions, adding to the narrative of innovation and collaboration for peaceful civil energy generation. India’s progress in small modular reactors and fast breeder technologies enables the possibility of connecting with developing nations looking for sustainable, low-cost nuclear energy. India’s vision for civil nuclear energy began with the aim of empowering the nation in energy security. This aim has further transformed into the potential for becoming a responsible leader in global energy development.

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*U S Vidisha, Research Intern, Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi
Disclaimer: Views expressed are personal.  

End notes

^[i] Ashley. ( October, 2024). Reclaiming the promise of nuclear power in India. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved May 10, 2025, from https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/10/nuclear-power-india-promise?lang=en

^[ii] PM witnesses the historic “Commencement of core loading” at India’s first Indigenous fast breeder reactor (500 MWE) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu. (March 4, 2024). [Press release].

Retrieved May 10, 2025, from https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=2011347

^[iii] High-assay low-enriched uranium (HALEU) is a type of uranium fuel enriched between 5 and20 per cent of uranium-235 that allows small reactors to generate power efficiently, optimise system for longer cycles and better fuel utilization. HALEU-Thorium mix in the existing Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR) can be used in recycling spent fuel as well as support advanced reactors like Molten Salt Reactors.

^[iv] Thorium - World Nuclear Association. ( May, 2024). https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/thorium

^[v] Nuclear power in Union Budget 2025-26. https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2099244

^[vi] Ministry of External Affairs. (March 1, 2018). Memorandum of Understanding Between the Department of Atomic Energy of the Government of the Republic of India, the State Atomic Energy Corporation “Rosatom” (Russian Federation), and the Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh on Trilateral Cooperation in Implementation of the Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant Project in Bangladesh. MEA.

https://www.mea.gov.in/Portal/LegalTreatiesDoc/018M3457.pdf

^[vii] Mustafaev, J. (May 14, 2025). IAEA launches SMR school as Africa looks to nuclear energy. IAEA. https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/iaea-launches-smr-school-as-africa-looks-to-nuclear-energy

^[viii] Coelho, Z. (November 29, 2024). How the BRICS Nuclear Energy Platform Will Transform Africa’s Energy Future — Nuclear Business Platform. Nuclear Business Platform. https://www.nuclearbusiness-platform.com/media/insights/brics-nuclear-energy-platform

^[ix] Vorotnikov, V. (November 12, 2024). BRICS countries establish nuclear power alliance to promote trade, projects. S&P Global Commodity Insights. https://www.spglobal.com/commodity-insights/en/news-research/latest-news/electric-power/101824-brics-countries-establish-nuclear-power-alliance-to-promote-trade-projects

^[x] The Generation IV International Forum (GIF) promotes advanced nuclear reactor development for safe, sustainable energy. India is not a member but has shown interest. Though excluded due to its non-signatory status to the NPT.

^[xi] Tripathi, P. (October 5, 2024). The Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor and India’s pursuit for energy security. orfonline.org. https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/the-prototype-fast-breeder-reactor-and-india-s-pursuit-for-energy-security