Indian Council of World Affairs

Abstract: With rapid scientific and technological advancements, artificial intelligence is impacting major aspects of life, and Middle Eastern countries are embracing it wholeheartedly. The countries are investing in it per their needs and capacity. Israel, the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Türkiye are at the forefront. These countries understand artificial intelligence is the oil of the future, and do not want to miss the opportunity to advance it at the national level and then lead at the regional level. 

Introduction 

Artificial Intelligence (AI), the holy grail of the future, is an emerging, powerful, disruptive and transformational technology, and the Middle East is ready and well-equipped to embrace it in totality. AI has emerged as a major transformative force in the 21^st century due to the advancement in computing power through graphics processing units and the availability of vast amounts of data through the Internet of Things, social media, historical databases, operational data sources and various public and governmental sources.[i] Among the non-Arab countries, Israel is leading with massive investment in AI, and in the Arab world, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries are at the forefront, with the UAE, Saudi Arabia and Qatar taking the lead, along with Egypt, investing heavily in this domain. US President Donald Trump’s huge investment announcements in AI and securing a US$ 2 trillion deal during his visit to the three GCC countries in May 2025 are significant in this regard. Saudi firm DataVolt is pursuing an investment of US$ 20 billion in data centres and energy infrastructure,[ii] while the UAE has signed an agreement for investing 1.4 trillion in developing data centres in the USA.[iii]

AI refers to a machine’s ability to think, learn and act without being explicitly coded with commands.[iv] It enables computer systems to perform tasks at a high speed in an autonomous manner through data analysis and pattern recognition. AI is becoming all-pervasive with its ever-expanding application and usage in various sectors like healthcare, education, cybersecurity, banking, industry and the military. The Middle East countries are aware that AI is the future and want to be the leaders in this sector. The fast-expanding AI ecosystem requires a supporting infrastructure-like data centre whose prerequisites are land, energy and connectivity. The Middle East has vast land resources and huge reserves of hydrocarbons and is working actively to enhance its connectivity through massive and ambitious projects like the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC). Semiconductors and critical minerals form the base of AI infrastructure, and the Middle East is looking forward to collaborations in this sector; the UK is to sign critical minerals deal with Saudi Arabia, which has untapped mineral resources worth US$ 2.5 trillion.[v]

Secondly, ethical and efficient data computing is crucial for AI expansion, and it can be achieved by ensuring appropriate data management, including collection, storage, preparation, processing and security.[vi] As mentioned earlier, advancement in data computing due to GPUs is one of the factors that has led to the fast growth of AI in this century, and the US chip designer NVIDIA dominates the market with its emphasis on chip designing along with the CUDA interface — a parallel computing platform enabling software to leverage the processing power of GPUs.[vii] Therefore, the UAE’s preliminary agreement signed in May 2025 with the USA to import 500,000 NVIDIA advanced AI chips was significant,[viii] even though now the deal has been suspended by the US Commerce Department officials due to concerns of the technology being transferred to China.[ix] The Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC) dominates the global semiconductors market and supplies chips to major companies like Apple and NVIDIA. The Middle East countries depend on Western countries for the chips and software and have signed a number of deals with multinational companies like Microsoft, OpenAI, Amazon, IBM and Google. 

Last year, Google announced its AI opportunity initiative, pledging US$ 15 million by 2027 for the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), aiming to expand its reach to 500,000 people in the region. It is also intensifying its regional efforts with an Arabic-language AI curriculum under its Maharat-Min Google training programme.[x] It is providing AI upskilling opportunities to young people, women, migrants and other marginalised communities in the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Lebanon, Bahrain and Iraq. Additionally, Google is funding local researchers working on AI solutions in healthcare, climate, education and other important sectors. It has also provided a grant to New York University Abu Dhabi to start AI-powered apps in healthcare for the vulnerable communities and has partnered with Saudi PIF to expand the Dammam Google Cloud region with an AI hub to conduct AI research in Arabic language models. Google also launched its AI personal assistant Gemini in Arabic in July 2023, and the app can understand more than 16 Arabic dialects.[xi]

The Middle East Frontrunners

The region is looking at collaborating with various companies as much as they are keen on investing in the Middle East. To that end, they are conducting feasibility studies regarding AI in the Middle East. For instance, McKinsey released its report on the state of generative AI in the GCC in 2024,[xii] and PwC published a report on the potential impact of AI in the Middle East in 2018.[xiii] Deloitte has published a report on unlocking AI’s potential in the Middle East in February 2025, analysing the regional nuances after conducting interviews with more than 155 technology leaders and key industry figures of the UAE, Saudi Arabia and Qatar. The report underlines that the UAE, Saudi Arabia and Qatar are leading the region in AI with strong government commitments.[xiv] Overall, the Middle East and Central Asia score 0.40 on the regional AI preparedness index released by International Monetary Fund.[xv]

Middle East AI Preparedness Index by country (2023)

Source: IMF, available at https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/ai_pi[at]aipi/ADVEC/EME/LIC

Israel leads the regional AI race, as shown by each country’s AI preparedness score. On a scale from zero to one, Israel has an AI preparedness score of 0.73. This is followed closely by the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, such as the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Oman, and Bahrain. Israel has a collaborative, holistic and long-term national AI programme, ensuring massive investments for AI infrastructure and promoting an AI-supportive environment. Israel aims to position itself as the AI powerhouse through promoting research and development and ethical AI practices. Recently it has launched a US$ 2.9 million initiative called the AI Sandbox pilot programme for testing AI tools in public school classrooms, and in May 2025 it launched its national AI supercomputer, providing wide accessibility and affordability for Israeli start-ups, companies and researchers to train AI models at scale. It has launched initiatives worth US$ 1.8 million for attracting foreign talents to its AI industry, and more than 2,200 Israeli companies are utilising AI for advancements in industries like healthcare, agriculture, energy, transportation and construction.[xvi]

Second in the region and leading the GCC countries, the UAE has established a ministry of AI with the objective to build a knowledge-based economy, has a national strategy for AI and plans to establish dedicated AI research centres for fundamental and advanced research. It has linked its AI strategy with the long-term, vision UAE 2071 Centennial plan that focuses on a diversified knowledge economy emphasising advanced technologies. It established the Mohamed Bin Zayed University of Artificial Intelligence in Abu Dhabi in 2019 for the promotion of AI-centric research. The UAE has also established an AI Council that will oversee AI integration in government departments and the education sector. The council has launched an AI and coding licence to encourage investments in AI and attract concerned companies and coders from around the world to relocate to the UAE through the golden visa.[xvii]

Similarly, Qatar announced its national AI strategy in 2019 in line with its Vision 2030’s objective of economic diversification and advancement in technological capacity. It aims to establish Qatar as a leader in an AI-driven global economy. It set up the AI committee in 2021 to carry out the national strategy and make sure that all government agencies work together on AI projects. The committee also helps skilled AI professionals get better, keeps up with AI progress around the world, and forms partnerships on a global scale. Qatar Computing Research Institute (QCRI) at Hamad Bin Khalifa University has developed Fanar, an Arabic Artificial Intelligence Large Language Model (LLM). The Ministry of Communications and Information Technology has launched the principles and guidelines for ethical use of AI for private companies, government entities, students and the general public.[xxii] Qatar’s AI economy was estimated at US$ 31 million in 2022 and is expected to grow by 17.4 per cent annually to reach US$ 58.8 million in 2026.[xxiii] The company Scale AI is working with Qatar to develop AI tools in the education, civil service, tourism, healthcare and transportation sectors.[xxiv] Qatar is organising the World Summit AI in December 2025.[xxv]

Other GCC countries, including Oman, Bahrain and Kuwait, too, are keen to invest in AI, be future-ready and reap its benefits. Oman’s National Program for Artificial Intelligence and Advanced Digital Technologies within the framework of Oman Vision 2040 aims to build a digital economy capable of achieving sustainable development in accordance with Sultan Haitham bin Tarik’s emphasis on localising AI technologies and fast-paced legislation for enabling these technologies. The programme has been successful in positioning Oman among the top 50 countries with a rank of 45 in the Government AI Readiness Index, published by Oxford Insights.[xxvi] As part of it, the Oman government will take initiatives, such as establishing the National Open Data Platform, creating a National Centre for AI Research and Development, establishing an AI Studio, developing an Omani language model “Oman GPT”, and establishing the Fourth Industrial Revolution Centre.[xxvii]

Bahrain has released the National Policy for the Use of Artificial Intelligence and adopted the Guiding Manual on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence Use in the GCC, issued by the Ministerial Committee for eGovernment of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). It aims to create an AI-ready workforce by training 50,000 Bahrainis in artificial intelligence by 2030, promote the use of AI in governance through the AI Innovation Hub and encourage AI awareness by organising workshops on AI. Bahrain utilises AI to detect violations in the construction sector through satellite imagery and has organised the first international conference on AI in the judiciary. The popularity of AI-driven chatbots like Batelco’s Basma, ila Bank’s Fatima, Bahrain Islamic Bank’s Dana and BIBF’s Noora reflects that the government’s focus on AI is successful to an extent.[xxviii] Nasser AI Research and Development Centre aims to place Bahrain as the leading innovation centre in the region.[xxix]

AI and supercomputing are integral components of Kuwait’s national development plan. The country is investing in advanced computing infrastructure to support AI and supercomputing initiatives. Kuwaiti businesses are exploring AI applications. The focus is on predictive analytics in finance and automation in manufacturing.[xxx] By introducing the National AI Strategy (2025–2028), Kuwait has outlined a roadmap to integrate AI into major sectors like healthcare, education, governance and public safety.[xxxi] The strategy analyses its AI landscape and underlines the significance of developing a responsible and secure AI framework while proposing initiatives for the advancement of Kuwait’s AI goals under Kuwait Vision 2035. Kuwait envisions a future where it will be at the forefront of AI innovation by 2028. By integrating AI in various sectors like energy and transportation, Kuwait can achieve increased efficiency, optimise resource allocation and foster innovation in the near future. Per the SWOT analysis conducted by the Kuwait National Strategy Draft, its strong points are strong government support, ample financial resources, and strategic location, while its weaknesses are issues with data integration, positioning in a competitive global market and a lack of skilled talent. Kuwait aims to build a robust AI ecosystem by advancing responsible AI and engaging key stakeholders.[xxxii]

Among non-Arab countries other than Israel, Türkiye is investing heavily in AI, scoring 0.54 on the readiness index, while Iran scores low due to its geopolitical constraints. Türkiye published its national AI strategy 2021-2025 in August 2021, and it is in accordance with the Eleventh Development Plan, the Presidential Annual Programs and the vision of Digital Türkiye.[xxxiii] Türkiye’s focus on AI is in line with President Recep Tayyip Erdogan’s belief that the time has come for Türkiye to make a human-oriented breakthrough in AI. The strategy mentions six priorities, ranging from training AI experts and facilitating access to data and infrastructure to accelerating socio-economic adaptation, strengthening international cooperation and accelerating structural and labour transformation.[xxxiv] To this end, new research programmes will be launched, start-ups will be supported and Türkiye will participate in responsible AI studies at the global level. Through the national strategy, Türkiye envisions raising its GDP by 5 per cent by the end of 2025 and employing 50,000 people. It intended to rank among the top 20 countries in international AI indexes; however, it ranks fourth in the Middle East as per the Middle East AI preparedness index.

Despite facing severe challenges at various levels, Iran too is keen to be among the top countries in AI; in fact, it has climbed three places in the Oxford Insights index from being 94^th among 188 countries in 2023 to becoming 91^st in 2024. President Pezeshkian has reaffirmed his administration’s commitment to advancing the AI sector, and his government has committed US$ 115 million for research with the aim of emerging as a regional leader in AI. 2025 has witnessed some interesting developments in this regard, as Iran proposed AI partnerships with the Gulf countries during the “Iran Corridor 2025” conference in the UAE in February and in March 2025. It showcased a prototype of its national AI platform, expecting a stable version by 2026. Its national AI platform includes features like GPU-based processing infrastructure, large language and multimodal models, intelligent agents and application layers for various industries.[xxxv]

Last year, Iran established the National AI Organisation as the AI ecosystem flourishes due to a strong academic foundation; by 2023, Iran ranked second in the Middle East in terms of the number and quality of AI-related scientific publications.[xxxvi] Iran’s focus is on military and defence, considering its quest to develop indigenous platforms that can function independently from the Western-controlled systems. It has added the advanced data-processing Zagros warship, drones with AI navigation and smart combat robots to enhance military capability. The National Artificial Intelligence Association of Iran is the pioneer for creating an AI ecosystem in the country.[xxxvii] Among the Fertile Crescent countries, Jordan and Lebanon are keen on investing in AI, and among the North African countries, Tunisia, Morocco and Egypt are engaging with AI majorly.

Data centre count by country in the Middle East

Source: https://www.iiss.org/online-analysis/charting-middle-east/2025/05/the-uncertain-dividends-of-ai-in-the-middle-east/

The Global AI Ecosystem

The AI ecosystem at the global level is growing at a fast pace, and more and more countries are investing in infrastructure development, skilling and training and conducive governance. Global AI pioneers are the countries that formed and published their national strategies early, including the US, South Korea and China (2016), Canada, Japan and Singapore (2017), Germany, France, India and the UK (2018) and Russia (2019), with the common objective of mutual cooperation, human centric approaches and ethical use. Leading countries per the AI hiring index (2015-2016) are Singapore, Brazil, Australia, Canada, Türkiye, South Africa, the US, Sweden, the Netherlands, Finland, Ireland, Germany, the UK and Spain.[xxxviii] With growing interest and investments, AI is reaching newer benchmarks and will impact all aspects of life in the near future. Per the Stanford AI Report 2025, AI has improved majorly in generating high-quality videos, faster language models outperforming humans, medical devices and self-driving cars. Generative AI has attracted US$ 33.9 billion in private investment globally, with the US, China and the UK at the top. The US is the leader in producing top AI models, but China is bridging the quality gap by leading in AI publications and patents. 

Global cooperation on AI governance has intensified, with organisations, including the OECD, EU, UN and African Union, releasing frameworks focused on transparency, trustworthiness and other core responsible AI principles. Countries are cooperating at the global level on AI governance. Optimism regarding the use of AI is increasing, and it is becoming more accessible, efficient and affordable. While governments are focusing on large-scale investments, and AI regulations and AI literacy are increasing, access to AI and readiness to embrace it are lagging. Furthermore, when industry is moving ahead in using AI models, the performance gap between top models is reducing fast. The report states that high-stakes, precision-intensive cases are out of the AI purview due to limited efficiency in complex reasoning.[xxxix]

Conclusion

Despite the rapid growth of AI, the domain is facing several challenges, including data bias and concerns about its use in the military applications, due to its inability to understand and respond to nuances and complex scenarios. Besides, there are concerns pertaining to AI integration with existing programmes, data safety and security, collection and utilisation of relevant data and lack of adequate expertise in generative AI. Some of these challenges are related to the governance and ethics of AI. In 2021, 193 countries adopted the recommendation on the ethics of AI centred on human rights. Based on this recommendation, UNESCO’s Global AI Ethics and Governance Observatory provides resources for the public and private sectors to deal with the challenges arising from the use of AI.

In the Middle East, roadblocks to AI development include limited data supply caused by strict regulations, a shortage of skilled human resources, insufficient advanced technologies, and inadequate cooling systems for AI data centres. Data centres generate much more heat compared to traditional cloud operations and need to be cooled, while the Middle East is a water-stressed region with summer temperatures reaching up to 50°C. It is a challenge to access ample cool water throughout the year in the region, and using recycled water through two-phase immersion cooling systems is not economically viable. Solutions to availability of inadequate data and water deficiency for data centres will have to be found locally, as import is not a viable option, through domestic surveys and local heat management solutions.

Within the GCC, the threat perception regarding AI is stronger in Qatar as compared to Saudi Arabia and the UAE, per the Deloitte report. Qatar is focusing more on collaborations with government entities, while the UAE has been targeting the universities, and Saudi Arabia is investing in AI research labs. Overall, the organisations in the region lack a clear AI strategy. They are unable to identify high-value use beyond surface-level application. So, AI is mostly used for content generation and summarisation. GCC countries are promoting AI in daily use through biometrics, cybersecurity, automation, language processing, pattern detection, simulation and chatbots. The practice is successful to an extent, as they have a young, tech-savvy population. Nevertheless, there is a need to shift from an adoption to an innovation mindset and aim to become AI developers and producers instead of being buyers and consumers.

Middle East is conscious of the fact that ethics form an important part of AI promotion and consequently a number of countries have issued guidelines for safe and secure use by the people. One of the main goals of UAE National Strategy for Artificial Intelligence 2031 is to set clear rules for fair, clear, safe AI that respects people’s rights. Saudi Data and AI Authority has made rules regarding good practices and responsible use of AI. Egypt is the first country in the Arab world to use OECD’s AI rules and its AI Charter prioritises values such as safety, responsibility, people first, and fair treatment by AI. Data protection also forms an important part of AI ethics; Dubai International Financial Centre is making regulatory aims to protect personal data and design fair and safe AI systems. Saudi Personal Data Protection Law protects people’s data and sets rules for businesses and gives people right to access, fix and delete their data. As per Bahrain’s ethics rules, AI should be watched and people should check AI decisions, while Qatar’s AI strategy focuses on safe use of AI and data privacy.[xl]

Also, the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organisation (ALECSO) has adopted a charter on AI ethics in line with the recommendations of a 2023 Egyptian study on “Artificial intelligence phobia and scientific research ethics”.[xli] Despite this, people in the region are not yet completely ready to embrace AI. There is cultural resistance in trusting AI over humans along with a fear of misuse of client data leading to lack of confidence but the silver lining is the efforts made by these countries will lead to a change in people’s perception in the near future enabling countries to reap the benefits of AI optimally.

*****   

*Dr. Lakshmi Priya, Research Fellow, Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA)
Disclaimer: The views expressed are personal.

Endnotes

[i] Artificial Intelligence, NVIDIA, available at https://www.nvidia.com/en-in/glossary/artificial-intelligence/ accessed on August 06, 2025.

[ii] President Donald J. Trump Secures Historic $600 Billion Investment Commitment in Saudi Arabia, The White House, May 13, 2025, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/fact-sheets/2025/05/fact-sheet-president-donald-j-trump-secures-historic-600-billion-investment-commitment-in-saudi-arabia/ accessed on August 06, 2025.

[iii] President Donald J. Trump Secures $200 Billion in New US-UAE Deals and Accelerates Previously Committed $1.4 Trillion UAE Investment, The White House, May 15, 2025, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/fact-sheets/2025/05/fact-sheet-president-donald-j-trump-secures-200-billion-in-new-u-s-uae-deals-and-accelerates-previously-committed-1-4-trillion-uae-investment/#:~:text=The%20U.S.%20and%20UAE%20signed,as%20those%20in%20the%20UAE accessed on August 07, 2025.

[iv] Artificial Intelligence, NVIDIA, available at https://www.nvidia.com/en-in/glossary/artificial-intelligence/ accessed on May 06, 2025.

[v] UK to sign critical minerals partnership with Saudi Arabia, Reuters, January 14, 2025, available at https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/uk-sign-critical-minerals-partnership-with-saudi-arabia-2025-01-14/ accessed on August 06, 2025.

[vi] How to get Infrastructure Requirements for Artificial Intelligence Right, Wipro, May 2020, available at https://www.wipro.com/analytics/how-to-get-infrastructure-requirements-for-artificial-intelligence-right/ accessed on August 08, 2025.

[vii] Dylan Sloan, Nvidia shatters stock market record by adding over $230 billion in value in one day. Here’s why it’s dominating the AI chip race, Fortune, February 22, 2024, available at https://fortune.com/2024/02/22/what-does-nvidia-do-chips-ai-jensen-huang/ accessed on August 08, 2025.

[viii] Karen Freifeld and Hadeel Al Sayegh, US close to letting UAE import millions of Nvidia’s AI chips, sources say, Reuters, May 15, 2025, available at https://www.reuters.com/business/finance/us-close-letting-uae-import-millions-nvidias-ai-chips-sources-say-2025-05-14/ accessed on August 10, 2025.

[ix] Yevgeny Demkivskyi, US suspends UAE deal to purchase NVIDIA chips over fears of technology leak to China, Mezha Media, July 18, 2025, available at https://mezha.media/en/news/us-hold-nvidia-uae-chip-deal-303442/ accessed on August 18, 2025.

[x] Google boosts Arabic AI with $15m MENA initiative, TechinAsia, November 04, 2024, available at https://www.techinasia.com/news/google-boosts-arabic-ai-15m-mena-initiative accessed on June 06, 2025.

[xi] Google unveils MENA’s largest AI initiative from Dubai, WAM News, October 31, 2024, available at https://www.wam.ae/en/article/b5ykz4d-google-unveils-menas-largest-initiative-from accessed on August 05, 2025.

[xii] The state of gen AI in the Middle East’s GCC countries: A 2024 report card, McKinsey, November 06, 2024, available at https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/quantumblack/our-insights/the-state-of-gen-ai-in-the-middle-easts-gcc-countries-a-2024-report-card accessed on August 10, 2025.

[xiii] $320 billion by 2030? The potential impact of Artificial Intelligence in the Middle East, PwC, available at https://www.pwc.com/m1/en/publications/potential-impact-artificial-intelligence-middle-east.html accessed on August 16, 2025.

[xiv] The Perfect Storm: A Perspective on unlocking AI’s value in the Middle East, State of AI in the Middle East Report, Deloitte AI Institute, February 2025, available at chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.deloitte.com/content/dam/assets-zone2/middle-east/en/docs/services/consulting/2025/middle-east-state-of-ai.pdf accessed on August 16, 2025.

[xv] International Monetary Fund, available at https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/ai_pi[at]aipi/ADVEC/EME/LIC accessed on August 16, 2025.

[xvi] Israeli National AI Program, Ministry of Innovation, Science and Technology, available at https://aiisrael.org.il/about-us/ accessed on August 16, 2025.

[xvii] Artificial intelligence in government policies, The United Arab Emirates Government Portal, available at https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/digital-uae/digital-technology/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-in-government-policies accessed on August 18, 2025.

[xviii] Mohammed Soliman, Saudi Arabia’s AI ambition, and what it means for the United States, Middle East Institute, June 05, 2025, available at https://www.mei.edu/publications/saudi-arabias-ai-ambition-and-what-it-means-united-states August 18, 2025.

[xix] Saudi Arabia and UAE Vie for Middle East AI Supremacy, PYMNTS TV, June 09, 2025, available at https://www.pymnts.com/artificial-intelligence-2/2025/saudi-arabia-and-uae-vie-for-middle-east-ai-supremacy/ accessed on August 19, 2025.

[xx] Saudi Arabia to introduce AI education at all grade levels starting this year, Eye on AI, Arab News, July 10, 2025, available at https://www.arabnews.com/node/2607655/saudi-arabia accessed on August 20, 2025.

[xxi] Saudi Data & AI Auhtority, Vision 2030, available at https://sdaia.gov.sa/en/SDAIA/about/Pages/About.aspx accessed on August 20, 2025.

[xxii] Principles and Guidelines for Ethical Use of Artificial Intelligence, Ministry of Communication and Information Technology, Qatar, November 2024, available at chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.mcit.gov.qa/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2025/04/AI-Guidelines-_-En.pdf accessed on August 21, 2025.

[xxiii] Artificial Intelligence, Tasmu Digital Valley, available at https://tdv.motc.gov.qa/Investment-Catalogue/Artificial-Intelligence accessed on August 22, 2025.

[xxiv] Hayden Field, Scale AI working with Qatar to develop AI agents for education, health care and transportation, CNBC, April 16, 2025, available at https://www.cnbc.com/2025/04/16/scale-ai-working-with-qatar-on-ai-agents-for-education-health-care.html accessed on August 22, 2025.

[xxv] World Summit AI, Qatar, 09-10 December 2025, available at https://qatar.worldsummit.ai/ accessed on August 22, 2025.

[xxvi] Government AI Readiness Index 2024, Oxford Insights, available at https://oxfordinsights.com/ai-readiness/ai-readiness-index/ accessed on August 23, 2025.

[xxvii] Oman Launches the National Program for Artificial Intelligence and Advanced Digital Technologies, September 22, 2024, Ministry of Transport, Communications and Information Technology, available at https://www.mtcit.gov.om/ITAPortal/MediaCenter/NewsDetail.aspx?NID=141325 accessed on August 23, 2025.

[xxviii] Artificial Intelligence, Leveraging Artificial Intelligence (AI) for Bahrain, Government of Bahrain, available at https://www.bahrain.bh/wps/portal/en/BNP/ExploreBahrain/ArtificialIntelligence accessed on August 23, 2025.

[xxix] Nasser Artificial Intelligence and Research Centre, Bahrain available at https://www.nairdc.bh/#About%20Us accessed on August 24, 2025.

[xxx] Harnessing the Future: AI and Supercomputing Solutions in Jordan and Kuwait, Qubit Science and Technology, available at https://www.qubitscience.com/harnessing-the-future-ai-and-supercomputing-solutions-in-jordan-and-kuwait/ accessed on August 24, 2025.

[xxxi] Artificial Intelligence law at Kuwait, Law Gratis, May 05, 2025, available at https://www.lawgratis.com/blog-detail/artificial-intelligence-law-at-kuwait accessed on August 24, 2025.

[xxxii] Kuwait National AI Strategy 2025-2028, available at chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://cait.gov.kw/media/filer_public/3f/b4/3fb49a45-4a78-4489-8898-b68e2bd260ca/kuwait_national_strategy.pdf accessed on August 22, 2025.

[xxxiii] National AI Strategy 2021-2025, Türkiye, available at chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://cdn-assets.inwink.com/b0269dea-af7b-4460-b29a-c40b9941c4c5/d32fa511-ac43-49ef-b5b2-d90034d2af03 accessed on August 24, 2025.

[xxxiv] Ibid.

[xxxv] Iran unveils national AI platform prototype, Iran International, March 15, 2025, available at https://www.iranintl.com/en/202503158253 accessed on August 25, 2025.

[xxxvi] Silicon Persia: Iran’s AI Aspirations and the Global Tech Order, Special Eurasia, available at https://www.specialeurasia.com/2025/03/24/iran-ai-silicon-persia/ accessed on August 24, 2025.

[xxxvii] National Association of Artificial Intelligence of Iran, available at https://iranaiai.ir/en/ accessed on August 25, 2025.

[xxxviii] National AI Strategy 2021-2025, Türkiye, available at chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://cdn-assets.inwink.com/b0269dea-af7b-4460-b29a-c40b9941c4c5/d32fa511-ac43-49ef-b5b2-d90034d2af03 accessed on August 24, 2025.

[xxxix] The 2025 AI Index Report, Human Centred Artificial Intelligence, Stanford University, available at https://hai.stanford.edu/ai-index/2025-ai-index-report accessed on August 25, 2025.

[xl] AI Regulation in Middle East: 10 Key Points, December 10, 2024, available at https://dialzara.com/blog/ai-regulation-in-middle-east-10-key-points accessed on September 29, 2025.

[xli] Wagdy Sawahel, First AI ethical code adopted to protect Arab values in HE, University World News, July 23, 2025, available at https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20250722122435648#:~:text=Besides%20culture%2C%20the%20AI%20Arab,environmental%2C%20climate%20and%20economic%20challenges accessed on September 29, 2025.