Last month, more than 100 people were killed in the Darfur region of Sudan owing to attacks launched by the rebels as well as in tribal conflicts. [1] The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs in Sudan (OCHA) had documented that between 19th July and 26th July, at least seven attacks have taken place in the region. Owing to the increase in violence, authorities had declared curfew in parts of Darfur.[2] The core issue driving these clashes is control of valuable agricultural land. The violence has cast a shadow over the ongoing peace negotiations between the Khartoum government and Darfuri rebels.[3] The killings have resulted in protests by civilians across Darfur and the key demand of protestors is to ensure the security of the population. Following the violence, Sudanese Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok announced the deployment of a new force to ensure the stability in the region. However, the announcement has failed to reassure the citizens of the region as Darfur has a history of indescribable atrocities committed by the Sudanese government-backed militias known as ‘Janjaweed’. Therefore, the deployment of the force is being seen as an attempt by the militias to continue their privileges and the already-complicated situation may be compounded by these latest developments.[4]
Darfur is the westernmost region of Sudan that borders Libya, Chad, Central African Republic (CAR) as well as South Sudan and is known to have suffered one of the greatest human tragedies of this century. Since the 1960s, Sudan’s peripheral regions including the Southern Sudan have been marred by bloody conflicts, insurgencies, demands for secession and unspeakable horrors.[5] During 2001-2003, long simmering local disputes in Darfur worsened and the local government was unable to resolve these disputes. This, combined with the ambitious yet frustrated leadership of Darfur fuelled insurgency in the region. The conflict escalated ‘more quickly and bloodily than either side anticipated’.[6] Darfuri rebels struck an airport in 2003 and their successful attack brought the plight of Darfur to the attention of the world as well as of the Sudanese government.[7]
In response to the attack and launching of the rebellion, the Sudanese government, under Omar al-Bashir, responded with the deployment of air power and ‘Janjaweed’ Arab militias. The government was determined to suppress the rebellion and in the process unleashed a reign of terror in Darfur. The conflict was at its peak from 2003 till 2007. The Sudanese government was accused of adopting ‘scorched-earth’ tactics and waging genocide against the African ethnic groups (Fur, Zaghawa and Masalit) of the region.[8] It is estimated that about 300,000 people lost their lives and more than 3 million people were displaced during these years.[9] Responding to the alarming humanitarian situation, the UN along with African Union (AU) had deployed hybrid peacekeeping force (known as UN-AU Hybrid Operations in Darfur, UNAMID) in the region.[10] Moreover, taking note of President Bashir’s role in the Darfur conflict, the International Criminal Court (ICC) indicted him and issued an arrest warrant in 2009 for war crimes and crimes against humanity in Darfur.[11] He became the first sitting head of state to be so charged by the ICC warrant.
It is pertinent to note here that, unlike the Southern Sudanese rebellion, religious dimension played no role in the Darfur conflict as most of the population is Muslim. However, African ethnic groups believed that Sudanese government in Khartoum favoured Arabs.[12] Along with the discrimination based on ethnicity, economic and political marginalization of the region had also fuelled the insurgency. Consequently, rebels were mostly drawn from Fur, Zaghawa and Masalit ethnic groups.[13] During the brutal counter-insurgency campaign, government forces and Arab Janjaweed militias often targeted these ethnic groups. The conflict was also a struggle between Arab pastoralists and settled African population engaged in farming as pastoralists were driven onto the farmland owing to the desertification and droughts in the region[14]. Root causes of the conflict persist even now and the belligerent attitude of the al-Bashir regime made matters worse.
The conflict in Darfur had also led to an international campaign, Sudan Divestment Task Force, to pressurise international oil companies active in the Sudanese oil sector.[15] In the context of atrocities in Darfur, university students (in some western countries such as the United States) were particularly active in the Sudan Divestment campaign and called on the investors to sell their shares in these oil companies. Activists had also made efforts to target the Beijing Olympics of 2008 and criticise China’s unequivocal support for the Sudanese government.[16] However, these efforts had limited impact on the Sudanese government and al-Bashir. He continued to stay in power and maintained his firm grip on the regime till 2018.
Although, in this decade (2011-2020), violence in Darfur has come down, the rebellion did not die down completely. Moreover, the plight of the displaced population has not eased in any meaningful way. The reasons for this are found in the behaviour of the rebel groups and government. Government had signed peace agreements with rebels in 2006 and in 2011 but has failed in bringing all rebel groups in the ambit of the peace deals. In fact, only one rebel group signed peace agreement in 2006 and it also went back to fighting.[17] The conflict resolution became even more complicated by the fact that in 2011, three Darfuri rebel groups joined hands with rebels in other restive regions of Sudan; Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile and formed Sudan Revolutionary Front (SRF). Moreover, the UN had accused the newly-independent state of South Sudan to have supported SRF. Sudan’s neighbours, Chad and Libya had also supported Darfuri rebels.[18]
Moreover, the multi-layered nature of the conflict has also made it extremely difficult to resolve the insurgency. Unlike the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM), which spearheaded the Southern Sudanese rebellion, there is no one, single umbrella organisation that can negotiate on behalf of Darfur. There were several rebel groups (such as Sudan Liberation Army and Justice and Equality Movement) who were operating in Darfur.[19] Over the years, rebel groups have split into even further groups, mostly along tribal lines.[20] Therefore, it is difficult to bring peace in such a fragmented situation. In 2015, it was observed that the conflict was being played out at following levels:
The al-Bashir government of Sudan, despite losing the oil-rich Southern Sudan continued to be defiant and suppressed the Darfuri population. It failed in addressing the political and economic marginalization of the region. However, the removal of al-Bashir in 2019 and the political transition in Khartoum rekindled hopes in Darfur. The new government led by a combination of civilian and military leadership had begun talks with Darfuri rebels.[22] However, the final peace deal is nowhere near in sight and the talks between the Khartoum government and Darfuri rebel groups seemed to have moved at a slow pace. Intermittent violence in Darfur seemed to have cast a shadow over these talks as well. The latest incidents of violence and the deployment of force to ensure stability in Darfur remind people of the Janjaweed and heavy-handed tactics of the Khartoum regime.[23]
There are apprehensions regarding the demand of rebel groups to hand over al-Bashir to ICC for prosecution. Initially, the Sudanese government had demonstrated willingness to consider handing over of al-Bashir to ICC.[24] However, it has not happened yet and there are doubts about the handover. The Sudanese government has been negotiating with rebel groups and have agreed to allow 25% representation in the national government and 40% in Darfur to the rebels. The government has also promised to provide $750 million in annual development fund to Darfur.[25] However, given the current grim financial situation, it is extremely difficult for the Sudanese government to follow through with this promise. It is also not certain whether there will be any significant donor funding as a dividend for peace after a peace deal is signed. However, the only glimmer of good news is that both rebel groups and government agree that the peace deal is the first step in ending the 17-year long conflict.[26]
Meanwhile, if the fighting continues and the ongoing agricultural season of 2020 is disrupted, the 2.8 million people in the region remain at the risks of chronic food insecurity.[27] The continued trouble over land rights and persistent tribal conflicts are also likely to worsen the situation. Therefore, despite the fall of al-Bashir, the peace and stability in Darfur still remain a distant dream.
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Dr. Sankalp Gurjar is a Research Fellow at Indian Council of World Affairs.
Disclaimer: The views expressed are personal
References:
[1]Nafisa Eltahir and Khalid Abdelaziz, “Sudan peace talks offer little hope for protesters in Darfur”, Reuters, July 29, 2020 at: https://in.reuters.com/article/sudan-politics-darfur-analysis/sudan-peace-talks-offer-little-hope-for-protesters-in-darfur-idINKCN24U264 (Accessed August 5, 2020)
[2] Al Jazeera, “Dozens killed in renewed violence in Sudan’s Darfur: UN”, July 27, 2020, at: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/07/dozens-killed-renewed-violence-sudan-darfur-200727055410756.html (Accessed August 11, 2020)
[3] Eltahir and Abdelaziz, no. 1
[4] Eltahir and Abdelaziz, no. 1
[5] The southern region of Sudan demanded separate statehood due to the political marginalization as well as neglect. The region also had separate religious as well as racial identity and these fault lines had been exacerbated by the policies and behaviour of the regime in Khartoum. Southern Sudan ultimately achieved the statehood (in 2011) after a long civil war (1983-2005).
[6] Alex de Waal, “Darfur and the Failure of the Responsibility to Protect”, International Affairs, 83 (6), 2007, pp. 1039
[7] de Waal, no. 6
[8] Human Rights Watch, “Darfur Destroyed: Ethnic cleansing by Government and Militia Forces in Western Sudan”,May 6, 2004, at: https://www.hrw.org/report/2004/05/06/darfur-destroyed/ethnic-cleansing-government-and-militia-forces-western-sudan (Accessed August 12, 2020)
[9] Jason Burke and Zeinab Mohammed Salih, “Sudan signals it may send former dictator Omar al-Bashir to ICC”, The Guardian, February 11, 2020, at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/feb/11/sudan-says-it-will-send-former-dictator-omar-al-bashir-to-icc (Accessed August 5, 2020)
[10] UNAMID, “About UNAMID”, 2020, at: https://unamid.unmissions.org/about-unamid-0 (Accessed August 5, 2020)
[11]BBC News, “Omar al-Bashir: Sudan’s ousted president”, August 14, 2019, at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-16010445 (Accessed August 5, 2020)
[12] James Copnall, “Darfur conflict: Sudan’s bloody stalemate”, BBC News, April 29, 2013, at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-22336600 (Accessed August 11, 2020)
[13] Human Rights Watch, no. 8
[14] Human Rights Watch, no. 8
[15] Luke Patey, The New Kings of Crude: China, India and the Global Struggle for oil in Sudan and South Sudan, Harper Collins, Noida, 2014 pp. 161-165
[16] Patey, no. 11
[17] Copnall, no.12
[18] Copnall, no.12
[19] Copnall, no.12
[20] Eltahir and Abdelaziz, no. 1
[21] International Crisis Group, “The Chaos in Darfur”, April 22, 2015, at: https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/b110-the-chaos-in-darfur.pdf (Accessed August 12, 2020)
[22] The Defense Post, “Sudan government and rebels extend peace talks by 3 weeks”, February 17, 2020, at: https://www.thedefensepost.com/2020/02/17/sudan-government-rebels-extend-peace-talks-3-weeks/ (Accessed August 5, 2020)
[23] Eltahir and Abdelaziz, no. 1
[24] Burke and Salih, no. 9
[25] Eltahir and Abdelaziz, no. 1
[26] Eltahir and Abdelaziz, no. 1
[27] Eltahir and Abdelaziz, no. 1