On 20 November, Russian President Vladimir Putin signed Executive Order approving the Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation, which updates Russia’s foreign policy priorities, goals and objectives.1 The new foreign policy concept has been introduced after a gap of three years,2 which is relatively not a wide gap given the gap period of the previous ones under the leadership of Putin (2000, 2008 and 2013). The new one is an updated version of the previous ones.
The foreign policy concept of 2016 continues to uphold the national interests of Russia and to achieve its strategic national priorities. The new foreign policy concept of 2016 is assertive in its language on achieving its objectives and also towards the West. It gives importance to the Eurasian and Asia-Pacific space.
The paper highlights the new additional focuses of Russia’s foreign policy in the new foreign policy concept of 2016 and also points out the additions the Kremlin has supplemented to the existing ones which were laid down in the 2013version.
Section |
Main Text of 2013 |
Main Text of 2016 (Text in bold highlights changes) |
Overview |
Modern World and the Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation
Modernization of Weaponisation |
With the reduced risk of a large-scale war, including a nuclear one, the balance of military power between states and groups of states is changing. Efforts to build up or modernize offensive potentials, to create and deploy new types of weapons erode the global security architecture based on international treaties and agreements in the area of arms control.
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Force is becoming an increasingly important factor in international relations amid escalating political, social and economic contradictions and growing uncertainty in the global political system and economy. Efforts to expand and upgrade military capabilities and to create and deploy new types of weapons undermine strategic stability and pose a threat to global security which is underwritten by a system of arms control treaties and agreements. Although a large-scale war, including nuclear war, between major powers remains unlikely, they face increased risks of being drawn into regional conflicts and escalating crises.
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In the new text, without spelling out the word ‘use of force’ Russia talks about the importance of force due to constant change in international system.
The Ukrainian stalemate and Syrian crisis brought Russia and the West especially the US to an uncompromising position. There is upgradation and modernization of their respective defence systems. Russia increased its intercontinental ballistic missiles, submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and deployed heavy bombers equipped for nuclear armaments in 2014 and 2015. However, there is a decline in ICBMs, SLBMs and heavy bombers and an increase in its nuclear warheads in 2016.3
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b) Challenges |
New transborder threats and challenges increasingly dominate the international agenda rising in proportions and becoming more diversified in form and geography. They include, in the first place, the risk of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their means of delivery, international terrorism, uncontrolled traffic in arms and combatants, radicalization of public sentiment giving rise to religious extremism and ethnic and interconfessional tensions, illegal migration, maritime piracy, drug trafficking, corruption, regional and internal conflicts, scarcity of essential resources, demographic problems, global poverty, environmental, sanitary and epidemiological challenges, climate change and threats to information and food security.
Globalization processes have also transformed international organized crime which acquired a new, macroeconomic dimension leading to the emergence of new criminal "power poles" that accumulate considerable resources and progressively expand their influence, including by infiltrating government agencies of various countries and financial and economic institutions, as well as by establishing ties with terrorist and extremist organizations. |
The new unprecedented level of global threat that the world is witnessing due to the emergence of Islamic State (IS) and similar groups4. The Concept states that how IS and the other groups want to create their own state and seek to consolidate their influence on a territory stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to Pakistan. It emphasises creating a broad international counter-terrorist coalition based on effective and consistent interstate cooperation without any political considerations or double standards, above all to prevent terrorism and extremism and counter the spread of radical ideas.
Transnational organized crime is gaining momentum with the emergence of new centres of criminal power that accumulate substantial resources and consistently expand their sphere of influence, including by infiltrating government bodies in various countries, as well as financial and economic institutions and by establishing ties with terrorist and extremist organizations. 5 |
International terrorism is given urgent importance in the new version. A geographical visual mapping of the extent of activities of the terrorist groups has been laid down (from the Atlantic Ocean to Pakistan). Hence, to counter the threat, Russia proposes the creation of an international counter-terrorist coalition without any double standards.
In this context, it would be important to observe Russia’s own position of negotiations with Taliban in Afghanistan and the Kremlin’s dialogue with China and Pakistan on Islamabad’s role in providing safe havens for terrorist groups and support on cross-border terrorism against India. Russia has already started distinguishing between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ terrorists which is evident with its recent meeting with China and Pakistan in Moscow on December 27, 2016, where they excluded Afghanistan from the meeting.6 They are working towards building a new axis in Afghanistan.7 Russia argued that the Taliban is a necessary bulwark in the war against the so-called Islamic State.8 For this reason, Russia and China as permanent members of the UNSC are trying to remove some of the Taliban leaders from the UN sanction lists. |
c) Cybercrime |
New transborder threats and challenges increasingly dominate the international agenda rising in proportions and becoming more diversified in form and geography. They include, in the first place, the risk of proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their means of delivery, international terrorism, uncontrolled traffic in arms and combatants, radicalization of public sentiment giving rise to religious extremism and ethnic and interconfessional tensions, illegal migration, maritime piracy, drug trafficking, corruption, regional and internal conflicts, scarcity of essential resources, demographic problems, global poverty, environmental, sanitary and epidemiological challenges, climate change and threats to information and food security. |
In today’s world, cross-border challenges and threats are rapidly becoming more pronounced and far-reaching in nature and geographic scope, including the illegal proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their means of delivery, uncontrolled arms trafficking, illegal migration, human trafficking, illegal trade of narcotic drugs, psychotropic substances and their precursors, corruption, sea piracy, cybercrime, global poverty, climate change, as well as threats to food, environmental, sanitary and epidemiological security. |
The Russian Association of Electronic Communications was established in 2006 to speed Russia’s integration into the global internet economy.9 It has been trying to develop a legitimate IT industry which will help in countering cybercrime. It is believed that there are people who participate in a wide range of illegal activities, including selling scareware, spamming, and assisting in online banking fraud.10
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d) Language of the Foreign Policy Concept |
Russia's foreign policy is transparent, predictable and pragmatic. It is consistent and continuous and reflects the unique role our country has been playing over centuries as a counterbalance in international affairs and the development of global civilization.
Russia is fully aware of its special responsibility for maintaining security in the world both on the global and regional levels and is determined to act jointly with all the interested states to address common challenges. Russia will work to anticipate and forestall events and remain prepared for any scenario in global affairs. |
Russia conducts an assertive and independent foreign policy guided by its national interests and based on unconditional respect for international law. Russia is fully aware of its responsibility to support peace and security in the world both at the global and regional levels and is committed to working with all interested States to address common challenges. Its foreign policy is open and predictable. It is characterized by consistency and continuity and reflects the unique role Russia has played for centuries as a counterbalance in international affairs and the development of global civilization. |
In the 2016 Concept, Russia announces that it “conducts an assertive and independent” foreign policy, which were not used in the 2013 Concept. It also used the words such as “responsibility to support peace” and “open” to describe the country’s role in international relations and its foreign policy. The common adjectives in describing the foreign policy of 2016 and 2013 were ‘transparent, predictable, consistent and continuity’.
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Priorities of the Russian Federation in overcoming Global Challenges
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Russia attaches great importance to ensuring sustainable manageability of global development, which requires collective leadership by the major states of the world, which, in turn, should be representative in geographical and civilizational terms and fully respect the central and coordinating role of the UN. To these ends, Russia will increase its participation in such formats as the Group of Twenty, BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and the Republic of South Africa), the Group of Eight, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the RIC (Russia, India and China) alongside other organizations and platforms for dialogue. |
Russia attaches great importance to ensuring the sustainable manageability of global development, which requires collective leadership from the major States that should be representative in geographic and civilization terms and fully respect the central and coordinating role of the UN. To these ends, Russia has been expanding its ties with its partners within the Group of Twenty, BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and the Republic of South Africa), the SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization), RIC (Russia, India and China) alongside other organizations and dialogue platforms. |
In the new Concept, Russia drops G8 group from its agenda of expanding its ties. While in the 2013 version, cooperation with the G8 had featured.
The undermining of G8 is because of the West dropping Russia out of the group after the latter’s alleged involvement in the Ukrainian crisis. |
Rule of Law in International Relations |
Counter the attempts of certain countries or groups of countries to revise the universally recognized norms of international law established in universal documents such as the UN Charter, the 1970 Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the UN Charter, as well as in the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (Helsinki, 1 August 1975). Arbitrary and politically motivated interpretation of fundamental international legal norms and principles such as non-use of force or threat of force, peaceful settlement of international disputes, respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity of states, right of peoples to self-determination, in favor of certain countries pose particular danger to international peace, law and order. Likewise, attempts to represent violations of international law as its "creative" application are dangerous. It is unacceptable that military interventions and other forms of interference from without which undermine the foundations of international law based on the principle of sovereign equality of states, be carried out on the pretext of implementing the concept of "responsibility to protect" |
To counter attempts by some States or groups of States to revise the generally accepted principles of international law enshrined in the UN Charter, the Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations of October 24, 1970, as well as in the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe of August 1, 1975; counter politically motivated and self-interested attempts by some States to arbitrarily interpret the fundamental international legal norms and principles such as non-use of force or threat of force, peaceful settlement of international disputes, respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity of States, right of peoples to self-determination; counter attempts to represent violations of international law as "creative" applications of such norms; counter attempts to interfere in the domestic affairs of States with the aim of unconstitutional change of regime, including by supporting non-State actors, such as terrorist and extremist groups. |
A line was added on countering attempts by some states and group of states that interferes in the domestic affairs of states with the aim of unconstitutional regime change, including by supporting non-state actors, such as terrorist and extremist groups. It indicates the US and Turkey’s role of supporting the opposition groups in the Syrian crisis (politically and military). Similarly, the role of the US and EU in Ukraine has bared open the uncomfortable relationship between Russia and the West.
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Strengthening International Security
a) Outer Space |
Comes out in favour of the prevention of deployment of weapons in outer space and the conclusion of a relevant international treaty, the elaboration of transparency and confidence-building measures in outer space activities, the establishment of a system of collective response to potential missile challenges on an equal basis, and stands against unilateral arbitrary actions aimed at building up an anti-missile defense system by a state or a group of states that undermine strategic stability and international security |
Consistently works to prevent an arms race in space by drafting and entering into an international treaty, and as an interim measure, encourages States to commit themselves not to be the first to introduce weapons in space. |
On outer space, both the versions (2013 and 2016) talks about the importance of its de-militarisation. However, a line in the new concept has been added. It emphasises on an interim measure that encourages states to commit themselves “not to be the first to introduce weapons in space”.
During the 70th UN General Assembly that took place in September, 2015, the US voted against the draft resolution, "No First Placement of Arms in Outer Space a draft that was developed by Russia11 and 26 other countries.12 At the 7th Xiangshan Forum that took place on October 10-12, 2016, Lt. Gen. Viktor Poznikhir of Russian General Staff said that the US ballistic missile defense (BMD) plans poses a potential threat to any nation pursuing space exploration.13 |
b) Nuclear and Mass Destruction Weapons |
Supports the process aimed at establishing zones free of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction |
Supports the creation of zones free from nuclear weapons and other types of weapons of mass destruction, primarily in the Middle East |
In the new version, Russia emphasises the creation of zones free from nuclear weapons and weapons of mass destruction in West Asia.
West Asia witnessed the use of force by external forces in the name of establishing peace and security for the human kind as it was assumed that some countries in the region such as Iraq had weapons of mass destruction. The Iraq War that led to the toppling of the regime has created chaos in the region. This war opened the fissures of trouble and grievances between the regime and the subjects such as in Libya, Egypt and Syria etc., strengthening of Islamic fundamentalism and radicalism, more sectarian divide, heightening of international terrorism, infrastructural destructions, refugee crisis and increase in anti-West sentiments. |
c) Nuclear Safety |
Comes out in favour of strengthening nuclear safety and security worldwide, in particular supports strengthening international legal mechanism in the fields of nuclear safety and prevention of nuclear terrorist attacks |
Advocates stronger technical and physical nuclear safety worldwide and efforts to prevent acts of nuclear terrorism, primarily by improving the relevant international legal mechanisms, with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) playing a central role in international cooperation on these matters, while respecting the right of States to determine their national policy on their own; believes that the State itself bears responsibility for ensuring that the national nuclear safety system is efficient and reliable and determining its optimal parameters at its discretion |
In the new Concept, Russia emphasises the role of IAEA in the matters of nuclear safety and prevention of nuclear terrorism. It also highlights the right of states to determine their own nuclear policy by taking responsibility of its safety.
This point can be relevant from the Iran nuclear issue. Iran was put under sanctions by the US The issue was resolved in 2015 with the major powers (Russia was one of the mediators) and Iran coming together after years of stalemate. |
d) Cyber Security |
Russia will take necessary measures to ensure national and international information security, prevent political, economic and social threats to the state's security that emerge in information space in order to combat terrorism and other criminal threats in the area of application of information and communication technologies, prevent them from being used for military and political purposes that run counter to international law, including actions aimed at interference in the internal affairs and constituting a threat to international peace, security and stability |
Russia takes necessary measures to ensure national and international cyber security, counter threats to State, economic and social security emanating from cyberspace, combat terrorism and other criminal threats involving the use of information and communication technology; deters their use for military-political aims that run counter to international law, including actions aimed at interfering in the domestic affairs of States or posing a threat to international peace, security and stability; and seeks to devise, under the UN auspices, universal rules of responsible behaviour with respect to international cyber security, including by rendering the internet governance more international in a fair manner |
In the 2013 Concept, only a passing remark on ‘information security’ was made. In the new edition, assertion to protect Russia from any kind of cyber threats has been emphasised.
Russia and the West especially the US are at loggerheads due to the accusations on Moscow for hacking the US presidential elections. Russia has denied its involvement.
In a poll, citizens of US were asked, if the information of intelligence agencies that attempted to influence the US election was correct or not. The answer was that 24% people believed that it was extremely likely that Russia did attempt to influence.14
Russia’s Head of Russia’s Security Council, Nikolay Patrushev, said in an interview on January 15 that Russia is pursuing a goal of forming an international system based on common rules of responsible behavior in cyberspace that would be equally applicable to all states. He added that Russia is also constantly improving its system of countering cybersecurity threats.15
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e) Terrorism and its Remedies |
Views combating international terrorism as a crucial domestic and foreign policy task, calls for systemic and comprehensive use of political and legal, awareness-raising, social and economic and special measures focusing on the preventive aspect of such counteraction on the basis of global and regional anti-terrorism conventions |
Condemns terrorism in any forms and manifestations or justifications to it. Opposes any reliance by States on terrorist organizations in pursuit of political, ideological or other aims. Recognizes that it is impossible to defeat terrorism through military and law enforcement action alone, advocates working proactively and effectively with civil society institutions in the fight against terrorism, including research and educational institutions, business communities, religious associations, non-governmental organizations and mass media. Believes that the struggle against terrorism will not be effective unless the sources of terrorist financing are eliminated, supports the efforts undertaken within multilateral structures to identify States, individuals and legal entities with economic ties to terrorist organizations and seeks to block financing channels used by terrorists |
In the new version, Russia uses strong words against terrorism such as condemnation of terrorism in any forms and justification of using it. Also, new approaches are going to be adopted such as involvement of civil society to counter the threat. Another new addition is the recognition and plan to eliminate the source of financing and identification of states, individuals and others who help the terrorist groups.
It would be interesting to see how Russia is going to implement this policy as Russia has extended its hand of friendship to some countries such as Pakistan (Taliban and other terrorist groups in the region) and Iran (Hezbollah, the militia group) who finances these groups and also legitimises their role in which ever states they are active.
Russia also supports the Chechen leader Ramzan Kadyrov who belonged to the Chechen insurgent group. Putin supports Kadyrov because he works as a bulwark against the Islamist fundamentalists in Chechnya. |
f) Migration |
Participates in international cooperation aimed at regulating migration processes and ensuring rights of migrant workers |
Russia participates in international cooperation aimed at regulating migration processes, ensuring the rights of migrant workers, including by promoting integration formats and mechanisms in the receiving country that suit migrants best, and setting conditions for obtaining citizenship or asylum from persecution; rejects the use of migration processes to achieve political ends. |
When the refugee crisis took place in Europe last year, due to the crisis in Syria, Russia called on Europe to make a concerted effort to integrate refugees and offer them jobs, or risk an explosion of social tension.16 Russia comes second in the world in terms of total immigration, after the US.17 Almost 80% of migrants from Eurasian countries goes to Russia.18
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International Economic and Environmental Cooperation
a) Equitable Economic Order |
Russia intends to actively facilitate the creation of an equitable and democratic global trade, economic, monetary and financial architecture, definition of international development targets assuming that common modernization challenges provide new opportunities for strengthening international economic cooperation. |
Russia intends to proactively contribute to the creation of an equitable and democratic trade, economic, monetary and financial architecture, the determination of global sustainable development guidelines and achievement of the UN sustainable development goals, assuming that a common approach is needed to tackle the current global economic challenges, which offers new opportunities for international cooperation. To these ends, Russia would ensure unrestricted and non-discriminatory exchange of latest technology, multilateral cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy. |
In the new edition, Russia uses the word “proactively” instead of “actively” in the 2013 version in its contribution to international economy. It has also added that Russia would ensure the unrestricted and non-discriminatory exchange of latest technology and multilateral cooperation in the use of nuclear energy.
The point on unrestricted and non-discriminatory exchange of latest technology is being added due to the problems being faced by Russia after the US-led sanctions imposed since 2014 and to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
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b) Environmental Security |
The Russian Federation is in favour of widening international cooperation with a view to ensuring environmental security and addressing climate change on the planet, including through the use of advanced energy- and resource-saving technologies in the interests of the entire global community. Russia's priorities in this area include further development of scientifically sound approaches to the preservation of the natural environment and further strengthening of cooperation with all states on environment protection issues to provide for sustainable development in the interests of the current and future generations. |
The Russian Federation favours expanding international cooperation with a view to ensuring environmental security and fighting climate change, primarily taking into consideration the importance of preserving and increasing the ecological potential of forests and building on the need to use the state-of-the-art energy and resource saving technologies for the benefit of the international community. The Paris Agreement adopted within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change of May 9, 1992 offers a solid regulatory framework for long-term climate policy. Priorities in this area include further efforts to develop research-based approaches to preserving a favourable environment and expanding cooperation with all States on this track in order to satisfy the needs of the current and future generations. The Russian Federation opposes far-fetched attempts to politicize environment protection and use it as a pretext for restricting State sovereignty over natural resources or for encouraging unfair competition. |
In the new version Russia talks about the importance of preservation and increase the ecological potential. It gives importance to the Paris Agreement and agrees that this agreement helps in terms of achieving long-term goals on climate change. It also states that Moscow “opposes far-fetched attempts to politicise environment protection and use it as a pretext for restricting state sovereignty over natural resources or for encouraging unfair competition”. The US President Donald Trump during his presidential speech spoke about pulling out his country from the Paris Agreement. If the rest of the countries also abandon the same, it become nullified, which can prove to be advantage for Russia. Russia signed the agreement on April 2016 however, is yet to ratify it.19 Russian President's Advisor, President's Special Representative for Climate Alexander Bedritsky said that Russia will not artificially speed up the process of ratification of the Paris agreements on climate, looking at other countries.20
Hesitation on ratification is observed on account of opposition from the business circle, largely in the coal and steel industry businesses. The companies, whose facilities are mainly located in Siberia, believe that quick ratification and a carbon tax will cause serious socio-economic damage.22 Another barrier to ratification is that Russia lacks the funding needed to undertake emissions reductions. Russia’s efforts to undertake energy efficiency measures were curtailed due to the US-led sanctions. Due to sanctions, it lacks access to international financing sources for emission reduction projects.23 Nevertheless, Russia’s support to the Paris Agreement could be a way to project its responsibility in the international system as a major power. |
c) Arctic |
Another priority is an effective use of sea and ocean spaces in view of their growing importance in terms of ensuring both economic development and security. The Russian Federation will work to promote relevant regimes in the areas of safe navigation, including maritime piracy control, responsible fisheries and ocean-related scientific research, in combination with measures to protect maritime environment and combat international terrorism. It is going to establish, in accordance with international law, outer limits of its continental shelf to provide additional opportunities for the exploration and development of its mineral resources. |
With maritime space and routes becoming increasingly important in terms of economic development and security, the Russian Federation seeks to comply with sea navigation safety requirements that meet the national interests in accordance with the norms of international maritime law, including those related to the fight against international terrorism and sea piracy; promotes responsible fishing; carries out research in the global ocean and protects the maritime environment. Russia intends to delimitate the outer limits of its continental shelf in accordance with international law so as to create more opportunities for the exploration and extraction of minerals. |
On Arctic, a new word “delimitate” has been added on the previous one. In the 2013 one, it talks about “establishing outer limits” of its continental shelf to provide additional opportunities for minerals’ exploration and extraction. The 2016 Concept asserts Russia’s position in demarcating its position in the region.
Russia has been proactive in its position in the Arctic region. In February 2016, Russia formally presented to the UN the country’s claim to Arctic Ocean seabed, including an area under the North Pole. If the geological shelf extends far out to sea, the nation can claim mineral resources in the seabed beyond that zone.24 Arctic region is becoming an active area of engagement for the world. The US Geological Survey estimated the Arctic may be home to 30% of the planet’s undiscovered natural gas reserves and 13% of its undiscovered oil. It is also a rich trove of minerals. Gains in all the areas in Arctic would be dynamic.
Russia is keen to delimitate and protect its national interests because of the geo-strategic location of the Arctic which compliments Eurasia. Russia sits on the passage way to East Asia to Europe.25 |
Regional Foreign Policy Priorities of the Russian Federation
a) Arctic |
Russia pursues a proactive and constructive policy of strengthening multi-format international cooperation in the Arctic. Consistently following its national interests, Russia believes that the existing international legal framework is sufficient to successfully settle all regional issues through negotiations, including the issue of defining the external boundaries of the continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean. Placing priority on interaction with Arctic states, including within the framework of the Arctic Council as a key regional forum, the coastal Arctic Five, the Barents Euro-Arctic Council and other multilateral formats, Russia is open to mutually beneficial cooperation with non-Arctic actors as long as they respect independence, sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Arctic states in the Arctic region. Using the Northern Sea Route – a Russian national transportation line in the Arctic which is open to international shipping on a mutually beneficial basis – is of great importance for the development of the region. |
Russia pursues a policy aimed at preserving peace, stability and constructive international cooperation in the Arctic. The Russian Federation believes that the existing international legal framework is sufficient to successfully settle any regional issues through negotiation, including the issue of defining the outer limits of the continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean. Russia considers that the Arctic States bear special responsibility for the sustainable development of the region, and in this connection advocates enhanced cooperation in the Arctic Council, the coastal Arctic Five and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council. Russia will be “firm in countering any attempts to introduce elements of political and military confrontation in the Arctic, and, in general, politicise international cooperation in the region. |
The new edition clarifies Russia’s assertive role in the region by being “firm in countering any attempts to introduce elements of political and military confrontation in the Arctic, and, in general, politicise international cooperation in the region. Kremlin does not mention anything on cooperation with the non-Arctic actors. In the 2013 Concept, it speaks about being “open to mutually beneficial cooperation with the non-Arctic actors as long as they respect independence, sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Arctic states in the region”.
In a meeting on August 2016, Russian Ministry of Defense, Minister Sergei Shoigu paid special attention to the implementation of the “2020 Activity Plan by the Northern Fleet.” This was formed in order to protect northern borders of Russia. Towards this, construction of unique close-cycle military towns have been completed on the Frantz Josef Land Archipelago and New Siberian Islands in 2016.26 Units of mobile rapid reaction forces are being trained in conditions of the Far North. Crews of submarines are performing under-ice training tasks. Russia is strengthening the air defence system in the region too.27
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International Humanitarian Cooperation and Human Rights
a) Human Rights |
As a country committed to universal democratic values, including human rights and freedoms and works towards achieving it through some objectives such as ensuring respect for human rights and freedoms etc. |
As a nation committed to universal democratic values, including human rights and freedoms and works towards achieving it through some objectives such as ensuring respect for human rights and freedoms etc. to counter attempts to use human rights theories to exert political pressure and interfere in internal affairs of States, including with a view to destabilizing them and overthrowing legitimate governments. to make social systems across the world more humane so as to ensure fundamental human rights and freedoms. |
The Human rights record in Russia has not been positive. The country denies it and says it is western propaganda. In 2015, Kremlin cracked down on civil society, media, and the Internet. The government intensified harassment and persecution of independent critics. The harassment on the LGBT community has also been intense. In 2013, Russia’s State Duma (Parliament) passed unanimously legislation that imposes harsh fines and jail terms for the distribution of homosexual “propaganda” to minors. The country’s insistence on “traditional family values” has intensified the violations towards this community. In October 2016, Russia lost the election for the United Nations Human Rights Council in a General Assembly vote. A petition signed by 80 NGOs, including Human Rights Watch and Refugees International, asked the voting countries to question Russia’s integrity to be a part of the UN’s premier inter-governmental human rights institution because of its intervention in Syria.28
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Information Support for Foreign Policy Activities of the Russian Federation |
An important element of the foreign policy activities of the Russian Federation is providing the broad world public with full and accurate information about its stand on major international issues, foreign policy initiatives and actions of the Russian Federation, its domestic social and economic development processes and plans, as well as on the achievements of Russian culture and science. |
Delivery to the international community of unbiased information about Russia’s perspective on key international issues, its foreign policy initiatives and efforts, processes and plans of its socioeconomic development and Russia’s cultural and research achievements is an important element of foreign policy activities of the Russian Federation. Greater participation of Russia’s academics and experts in the dialogue with foreign specialists on global politics and international security is one of the areas of public diplomacy development. |
The new edition talks about disseminating unbiased information about Russia’s stand on regional and global issues as well its objectives on them. It also talks about participation of Russia’s academics and experts in the dialogue with foreign specialists on global politics and international security is one of the areas of public diplomacy development which does not feature in the 2013 Concept.
In fact, going by the new version of Russia’s foreign policy, there should be an increase of Russia’s academics and experts in the dialogue with foreign specialists as Russia is keen on strengthening the expertise feedback to enhance its public diplomacy development. |
Regional Foreign Policy Priorities of the Russian Federation
a) European Union (EU) and Eurasian
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Russia is interested in enhancing cooperation with the European Union as its principal trade and economic counterpart and important foreign policy partner, looks forward to strengthening mutual interaction, emphasizes the importance of establishment of four common spaces in the areas of economy; freedom, security and justice; external security; and scientific research and education, including cultural aspects. Russia stands for signing a new Russia-EU framework agreement on strategic partnership based on the principles of equality and mutual benefit. Russia will contribute to successful implementation of the Russia-EU joint initiative "Partnership for Modernization" and promotion of mutually beneficial energy cooperation aimed at creating an integrated European energy system on the basis of strict adherence to existing bilateral and multilateral treaty obligations. A long-term objective in that area is to establish a common Russia-EU market.
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The EU remains an important trade and economic and foreign policy partner for Russia. The Russian Federation is interested in constructive, stable and predictable cooperation with EU countries based on the principles of equality and respect for each other’s interests. Further development of relations with the EU implies improving the legal contractual framework, as well as institutional cooperation mechanisms so as to ensure mutual benefit and the best possible configuration of partnership ties, including in the energy segment. Russia’s strategic priority in its relations with the EU is to establish a common economic and humanitarian space from the Atlantic to the Pacific by harmonizing and aligning interests of European and Eurasian integration processes, which is expected to prevent the emergence of dividing lines on the European continent.
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Russia’s tone is accusatory towards North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), European Union (EU) and the US. There are other new lines that have been added on the 2013 one.
On EU, a new line on their bilateral relationship has been added from the 2013 Concept. It talks about the alignment of interests of European and Eurasian integration projects. Russia is keen on dominating the energy markets in Europe. It is keen on fulfilling the idea of ‘“Greater Europe” stretching from Lisbon to Vladivostok. It continues to pin their hopes on closer economic, technological, innovation and trade ties between Russia and Europe. The concept of a Greater Europe also shifts a great deal of responsibility for providing security in the Eurasian context to Russia and makes it one of the central players in the region, a sort of bridge between Europe and Asia.29 Through enhanced cooperation with EU, Russia is also expecting to have visa-free facilities.30
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b) North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and EU
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No mention of blaming the EU and NATO of their expansion leading to problems in the Euro-Atlantic region. |
Systemic problems in the Euro-Atlantic region that have accumulated over the last quarter century are manifested in the geopolitical expansion pursued by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the European Union (EU) along with their refusal to begin implementation of political statements regarding the creation of a common European security and cooperation framework, have resulted in a serious crisis in the relations between Russia and the Western States. The containment policy adopted by the United States and its allies against Russia, and political, economic, information and other pressure Russia is facing from them undermine regional and global stability, are detrimental to the long-term interests of all sides and run counter to the growing need for cooperation and addressing transnational challenges and threats in today’s world.
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Russia viewed the intervention of NATO in Moscow’s area of interest (‘near abroad’) as problematic. The Georgian war of 2008 and the Ukrainian crisis of 2014 are the 21st century examples of it. Russia is also uncomfortable, especially after the Ukrainian crisis, regarding EU’s accession process. Russia somewhere views NATO and EU as institutions that want to hamper its national interests. |
c) Non-military alliance
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No mention |
Russia respects the choice of European States that are not members of any military alliances. These States are making a genuine contribution to ensuring stability and security in Europe. Russia is ready to engage in constructive multi-faceted cooperation with them.
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A new point has been added on this section regarding some of the European states (Austria, Cyprus, Finland, Ireland, Malta and Sweden) who are not members of any military alliances. Russia said that it respects these countries and is ready to engage with them in a constructive multi-faceted cooperation.
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d) US
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Russia firmly supports constructive cooperation with the USA in arms control, taking into account, inter alia, an unbreakable link between strategic offensive and defensive warfare and the necessity to transform nuclear disarmament into a multilateral process, and considers that the possibility of further reduction of strategic offensive armaments can only be examined with due account for all factors influencing global strategic stability. In the context of the creation of a global missile defense system by the USA, Russia will consistently seek legal guarantees that it will not be directed against Russian nuclear deterrent forces. |
Russia advocates constructive cooperation with the US in arms control, with due consideration of the inextricable link between strategic offensive and defensive warfare, and the imperative to make nuclear disarmament a multilateral process. The Russian Federation believes that talks on the further reduction of strategic offensive arms are only possible when taking into account all factors affecting global strategic stability, without exception. Russia views the creation of the global missile-defence system by the US as a threat to its national security and reserves the right to take adequate retaliatory measures.
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With the new leadership in US and the bonhomie been exchanged between Putin and Trump, there is hope of having a constructive relationship but in equal terms. Expectation of a nuclear arms cut from Russia’s side should not be expected by the US under the new President Trump. For Russia maintaining nuclear capabilities acts as a deterrent against any military conflicts.31 |
e) SCO |
Russia considers it vital to create and promote a partner network of regional associations in the APR. In this context, special emphasis is placed on enhancing the role in regional and global affairs of the SCO whose constructive influence on the situation in the region as a whole has significantly increased. |
Russia attaches importance to further strengthening the SCO’s role in regional and global affairs and expanding its membership, and stands for increasing the SCO’s political and economic potential, and implementing practical measures within its framework to consolidate mutual trust and partnership in Central Asia, as well as promoting cooperation with the SCO member States, observes and dialogue partners. |
India and Pakistan has been offered membership to the SCO. New Delhi has completed the clauses of membership and is supposed to the join at an early date. During a meeting amongst the heads of the Indian and Russian think-tanks last September, it was suggested that SCO could be an important platform against terrorism and providing stability in Afghanistan. For Russia, SCO would be a hub for all organisations in Eurasia and can play the role of a regulator. Russia is hopeful that the multicultural atmosphere of SCO would make it possible for SCO to become a hub.32 Russia is also trying to include Afghanistan, Iran and other countries to weaken the Chinese dominance. |
f) ASEAN |
Russia seeks to consistently deepen its strategic partnership with Viet Nam and increase its cooperation with other ASEAN member states. It will continue to intensify its relations with Australia and New Zealand and maintain regular contacts and forge relationships with South Pacific island states. |
Russia seeks to reinforce a comprehensive long-term dialogue partnership with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and achieve a strategic partnership. Efforts in this area will be supported by expanded cooperation within such frameworks as the East Asia Summit, which provides a platform for strategic dialogue between country leaders on conceptual issues related to the development of the Asia-Pacific Region, the ASEAN Regional Forum and ASEAN Defence Ministers’ Meeting with the dialogue partners.
Russia is committed to establishing a common, open and non-discriminatory economic partnership and joint development space for ASEAN, SCO and EAEU members with a view to ensuring that integration processes in Asia-Pacific and Eurasia are complementary. |
In the new edition, Russia has shown strong interest in the group. The vision of constructing a strategic partnership between both is a follow up of the theme “Moving Towards a Strategic Partnership for Mutual Benefit” during the 20th anniversary of their dialogue relations in 2016 with a Commemorative Summit held in Sochi, Russia on 19-20 May 2016. ASEAN-Russia cooperation is now being undertaken under the framework of the Comprehensive Programme of Actions (CPA) to Promote Cooperation between ASEAN and the Russian Federation 2016-2020. The CPA (2016-2020) is aimed at promoting and enhancing ASEAN-Russia Dialogue Relations through assisting ASEAN in its efforts in regional economic integration and Community building.33
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g) India |
Russia is committed to strengthening privileged strategic partnership with India, improving collaboration on relevant international issues and enhancing mutually beneficial bilateral ties in all areas, primarily in trade, bearing in mind the implementation of long-term cooperation programs approved by the countries. |
Russia is committed to further strengthening its special privileged partnership with the Republic of India based on shared foreign policy priorities, historical friendship and deep mutual trust, as well as strengthening cooperation on urgent international issues and enhancing mutually beneficial bilateral ties in all areas, primarily in trade and economy, with a focus on implementing long-term cooperation programmes approved by the two countries. |
With the celebration of the 70th Anniversary of their bilateral relationship, Russia and India can fulfil the commitment in the joint statement that “our close friendship has given clear direction, fresh impulse, stronger momentum and rich content to our ties” which was stated during the India-Russia Annual Summit that took place in October 15, 2016.34 Russian President Putin on January 26 said that India is an invariable priority in Russia’s foreign policy and that India plays an important and constructive role in solving pressing issues of the regional and international agenda.35 In the 2013 version, the language was on improving on their mutual interests such as mulitpolar world order and fighting terrorism etc. However, the 2016 edition emphasises on strengthening the mutual understanding and views between the two countries in order to achieve a mulitpolar world order and an equal global economic order. The important part on Indian section is the portion where it states that the strategic partnership would further strengthened based on the shared foreign policy priorities’. Though Putin has reiterated Russia’s priority towards India however at the same time, there seems to have divergent understandings regarding their positions in Afghanistan. For Russia, ISIS or Daesh is the biggest threat than Taliban in Afghanistan. To tackle the threat of ISIS, Russia seems to move closer with Pakistan and is also having negotiations with the Taliban. Whereas for India, apart from the other terrorist groups, Taliban too poses equally a great threat to the security of its country as well as in the region and the world36. Russian president’s special representative to Afghanistan Zamir Kabulov made a remark during the Heart of Asia Conference last December that for India Daesh is not the immediate threat as it is in Afghanistan and Central Asia.37 According to him, India must focus on containing ISIS rather than Taliban as the former is a real and dangerous threat than the latter. The diversification in understanding between India and Russia on ISIS and Taliban is a serious issue which needs to be ironed out. On Russia’s growing closeness with Pakistan, apart from the economic interests including making Islamabad a lucrative market for arms export, Moscow sees Pakistan as a real player in Afghanistan who cannot be ignored. According to one Russian scholar, sometimes a player, who is not a part of the solution, but a part of problem, needs to be engaged as it might back fire and become dangerous for the security of Russia as well as the region.38 |
h) China |
Russia will further build up comprehensive, equal and trustful partnership and strategic collaboration with China and actively develop cooperation in all the spheres. Russia regards the fact that the two countries share the same fundamental positions on key global issues as one of the core elements of regional and global stability. Thereupon, Russia will promote foreign policy cooperation with China in various areas, including in seeking ways to address new threats and challenges, finding solutions to urgent regional and international problems, cooperating within the UN Security Council, G20, BRICS, EAS, SCO and other multilateral formats. |
Russia will continue developing comprehensive, equal, and trust-based partnership and strategic cooperation with the People’s Republic of China, and proactively step up cooperation in all areas. Russia views common principled approaches adopted by the two countries to addressing the key issues on the global agenda as one of the core elements of regional and global stability. Building on this foundation, Russia intends to promote foreign policy cooperation with China in various areas, including countering new challenges and threats, resolving urgent regional and global problems, cooperation in international organizations and multilateral associations. |
Russia and China’s bilateral relationship has been growing especially since 2014. Russia is trying to strengthen its bilateral relationship with Beijing in order to balance China’s growing influence in Russia’s ‘near abroad’. Russia is also interested in expanding its economic influence in Asia-Pacific, hence having a friendly relationship with China serves Kremlin’s purposes. With Trump in his new office and talks are going around of a rapprochement between Russia and the US which might be creating discomfort within China. To allay these fears of Beijing, Russia has used the word ‘proactively’ trying to give assurance to China about their bilateral relationship. Russia would want to ensure that its relationship with China is not thrown into an imbalance by out rightly strengthening Moscow’s relationship with the US. China on January 26 signalled its openness for a trilateral partnership with Russia and the US, following Moscow’s advocacy that the three countries should develop their relations jointly.39 |
i) Cooperation with countries in Asia-Pacific |
Russia seeks to consistently deepen its strategic partnership with Viet Nam. |
Russia is consistent in its efforts to strengthen its comprehensive strategic partnership with the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, as well as expand multidimensional cooperation with the Republic of Indonesia, the Kingdom of Thailand, the Republic of Singapore, Malaysia and other States in Asia-Pacific. |
Russia’s focus would be in Asia-Pacific. Intensification of Russia's “Eastern” track of foreign policy, enhancement of regional bilateral ties, and participation in inter-governmental organizations are among the priorities for Russia.40
Russia is observing the advantages and disadvantages of cooperating with the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP). Some steps such as signing of Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with Vietnam in 2015 under the EAEU have taken place. Singapore has launched a joint study on the feasibility of a FTA with EAEU last year. EAEU is in talk with Thailand over signing of a FTA. Russia would want to link EAEU with ASEAN and RECEP.
Apart from furthering its cooperation in this region, Russia’s focus is also in the development of its Far East and Siberia. Cooperation with Asia-Pacific also helps in the development of this part of Moscow.
In coming times, Russia would also try to strengthen its relationship with the countries of BIMSTEC. Last year, during the BRICS Summit in India, Moscow showed interest in building its cooperation with BIMSTEC. |
j) Syria |
No Mention |
Russia stands for a political settlement in the Syrian Arab Republic and the possibility for the people of Syria to determine their future based on the Geneva communiqué of June 30, 2012, statements by the International Syria Support Group and relevant UN Security Council resolutions. Russia supports the unity, independence and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic as a secular, democratic and pluralistic State with all ethnic and religious groups living in peace and security and enjoying equal rights and opportunities. |
In the new 2016 Concept, Russia mentions about the Syrian crisis and towards its settlement. It emphasises that Russia stands for a “political settlement” in Syria and “the possibility for the people of Syria to determine their future based on the June 30, 2012 Geneva communiqué.” Syria would hold an important place for Russia because the crisis in the country catapulted Moscow ‘almost’ back into the superpower status it had during the Cold War. It projected not only its military might but also diplomatic one. It was able to break the coalition between the US and Turkey, a major ally of America. The change of sides by Ankara happened after the standoff between Russia and Turkey over downing of a Russian jet which threatened a war like situation between the two countries.
Russia has been able to bring opposition parties and the government under Syrian President Bashar al-Assad for negotiation regarding a resolution in Syria. Though the outcome of the talks between the warring parties are yet to be successful but nonetheless, Kremlin was able to show its influence. |
The rest of the points in the new Concept are a continuation of the 2013 one such as Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), Japan, Korean Peninsula, Afghanistan, Latin American, West Asian and African countries remains Russia’s foreign policy priorities. In the 2016 version, Pakistan was mentioned but not in the context of bilateral relations. It was mentioned in the context of the spread of terrorism geographically.
Conclusion
The 2016 Foreign Policy Concept demonstrates the effects of the plans and agendas it had set forth in the 2013. In the previous one (2013), Russia set the outline of setting the international agenda and shaping the system of international relations by being one of the influential and competitive poles of the modern world. In 2016, Russia has been able to contribute in a large manner towards tackling the geopolitical challenges such as in Syria and IS. It was able to push forward the economic initiative Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) to proactively have economic engagement in Eurasia and Asia-Pacific. It has consolidated its position as a powerful country in today’s world (as referred in the 2016 Concept) despite the sanctions that were imposed on the country since 2014. In fact, Russia’s morale has been boosted by the fact that despite being under sanctions, it had proactive engagements in Eurasia, West Asia and Asia-Pacific countries. The US and the West also had to engage with Russia to counter the growing threats of international terrorism and refugee crisis that hit the region.
The 2016 Foreign Policy Concept highlights the trajectory of the country’s actions in the coming time to strengthen both its hard and soft power.
Russia’s objective would be to have active engagement with countries including the US and Europe yet keeping Eurasia41, Asia-Pacific (India, China and Japan will be its priorities42) and Arctic as its priorities. There will be assertiveness in its policies towards Europe and the US43.
***
* The Author is a Research Fellow at Indian Council of World Affairs, Sapru House, New Delhi.
Disclaimer: The views expressed are that of the Researcher and not of the Council.
Endnotes
2 The timing of the new foreign policy concept has been well thought off and well timing with the changes the world order is witnessing including Russia being able to bring together the two regional powers such as Turkey and Iran who were fighting each other in opposite camps in Syria. The three powers (Russia, Turkey and Iran, excluding the US) is set to find a solution to the ongoing crisis in Syria.
3 According to the Nuclear Notebook of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, at the beginning of March 2016, the number of nuclear weapons worldwide was estimated at 15,350. Approximately 4000 are operational warheads, of which less than 1800 each of Russian and the US nuclear weapons are on high alert and ready for use at short notice. Hans M. Kristensen and Robert S. Norris, “Status of World Nuclear Forces”, Federation of American Scientists, http://fas.org/issues/nuclear-weapons/status-world-nuclear-forces/ (Accessed on November 17, 2016).
4 The names of the terrorist groups whose tactics are similar to IS are not mentioned.
6 Russia, China and Pakistan wants to induct Iran in the group.
7 Indrani Bagchi,, “Russia, China and Pakistan for flexible ties with Taliban, India ignored”, Economic Times, December 29, 2016. http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/russia-china-and-pakistan-for-flexible-ties-with-taliban-india-ignored/articleshow/56233609.cms (Accessed on January 2, 2017).
9 The association has more than 35 members, including leading Russian ISP Mail.Ru, social network outfits, news agencies ITAR-TASS and RIA Novosti, and net security firm Kaspersky Lab.
13 Andrei Akulov, “Russia, China: Trying to Prevent War in Outer Space”, Strategic Culture Foundation, October 14, 2016. http://www.strategic-culture.org/news/2016/10/14/russia-china-trying-prevent-war-outer-space.html (Accessed on January 18, 2017). Weapons of mass destruction are banned from space under the 1967 UN Outer Space Treaty. But the Treaty does not prohibit the placement of conventional weapons in orbit. The attempts to develop the capability to strike space objects were abandoned by Russia and the US in the 1980s. The US withdrawal from the 1972 ABM Treaty in 2002 not only paved the way for deployment of intercept missile systems, but also undermined the consensus on the strictly peaceful use of space. In 2014, the United States opposed a new draft treaty submitted to the United Nations by China and Russia seeking legally binding curbs on weapons in space amid concerns about the possibility of secret space arms race. Ibid.
14 “ Interviews with 1,000 adult Americans conducted by telephone by ORC International on January 12-15, 2017. The margin of sampling error for results based on the total sample is plus or minus 3 percentage points”, CCN Poll, January 12-15, 2017. http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/2017/images/01/16/trump.2.pdf (Accessed on January 25, 2017).
15 “Big surge in cyberattacks on Russia amid US hacking hysteria – Russian security chief”, RT, January 15, 017. https://www.rt.com/news/373764-surge-hacking-attacks-russia/ (Accessed on January 16, 2017).
17 “What Europe can learn about immigration from Russia”, Pravada, January 20, 2016. http://www.pravdareport.com/opinion/columnists/20-01-2016/133104-refugee_crisis_europe-0/ (Accessed on January 25, 2017).
18 Patrik Taran, “Migration, Globalization and Economic Viability: Challenges and Opportunities for Russia & Eurasia”, RIAC, October 6, 2015. http://russiancouncil.ru/en/inner/?id_4=6665#top-content (Accessed on January 25, 2017).
19 “Paris Agreement - Status of Ratification”, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. http://unfccc.int/paris_agreement/items/9444.php (Accessed on January 23, 2017).
20 “Advisor to the President: the Russian Federation will not artificially speed up the ratification of the Paris Agreement”, TASS, September 21, 2016. http://tass.ru/obschestvo/3639933 (Accessed on January 23, 2017).
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid.
25 Excerpts from Shri Jayant Prasad’s presentation at the First India-Russia Think-Tank Summit, 22-23 September 2016, MGIMO, Moscow.
26 “Statement by the Minister of Defence of the Russian Federation General of the Army Sergei Shoigu at the Extended Board Session of the Russian Defence Ministry”, Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation, December 22, 2016. http://eng.mil.ru/files/2016-12-22_MoD_board_extended_session_ENG.pdf (Accessed on January 5, 2016).
27 “Board session of the Russian Defence Ministry was held in Moscow”, Ministry of Defence of the Russian Federation, July 27, 2016. http://eng.mil.ru/en/news_page/country/more.htm?id=12090963[at]egnews (Accessed on January 5, 2017).
32 Excerpts from Fyodor Lukyanov’s presentation at the First India-Russia Think-Tank Summit, 22-23 September 2016, MGIMO, Moscow.
33 “Overview: ASEAN-Russia Dialogue Relations”, ASEAN, August 2016. http://asean.org/storage/2012/05/Overview-ASEAN-Russia-August-2016-r4cl.pdf (Accessed on January 24, 2017).
34 https://twitter.com/PMOIndia/status/787211260731326464?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw - accessed on December 19,
2016
35 “Privileged Strategic Partnership with India Important to Russia: Putin”, Economic Times, January 26, 2017. http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/privileged-strategic-partnership-with-india-important-to-russia-putin/articleshow/56790490.cms?prtpage=1 (Accessed on January 30, 2017).
36 All terrorist groups have far-fetched networks. Even if Taliban might seem to be operating and focused in Afghanistan but it would not take much time to align itself with other terrorist groups and spread its network in other regions. Different terrorist groups might have different ideological differences but their objectives are same.
37 Devirupa Mitra, “Pakistan Critical to Defeating ISIS, Says Russian Special Rep to Afghanistan”, The Wire, December 5, 2016. https://thewire.in/84672/pakistan-isis-afghanistan-russia/ (Accessed on January 15, 2017).
38 Excerpts from Evgeny Kozhokin’s Presentation at the First India-Russia Think-Tank Summit that took place at MGIMO, Moscow on 22-23 September 2016.
39 Atul Aneja, “China open to trilateral tie-up with U.S. and Russia”, The Hindu, January 26, 2017. http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/China-open-to-trilateral-tie-up-with-U.S.-and-Russia/article17097980.ece (Accessed on January 27, 2017).
40 Alexander Yakovenk, “How Russia sees the Asia Pacific region”, RT, October 11, 2013. https://www.rt.com/op-edge/russia-asia-international-relations-046/ (Accessed on January 24, 2017).
42 In the same address, Putin reiterated Russia’s foreign policy priorities towards India, China and Japan.
43 Though there is positivity and hope towards a better relationship with the new President Donald Trump taking the office