Indian Council of World Affairs

Abstract: The military coup in Myanmar in 2021 and the current internal crisis have raised concerns about smuggling and infiltration of armed groups along the 1,643 km Indo-Myanmar border. This directly impacts Northeast India, resulting in India revisiting its policy on managing the shared Indo-Myanmar border. 

The military coup of 1 February 2021 in Myanmar that ousted the elected government resulted in public resistance against the State Administration Council (SAC), as the junta calls itself, initially in the form of public protest and civil disobedience. However, this resistance metamorphosed into armed resistance. The disposed elected government regrouped as the National Unity Group (NUG) with the People Defence Force (PDF) as their armed wing. The PDF gained support from the Ethnic Armed Organisations (EAOs).^[i]

This armed resistance has resulted in internal instability and a fragile security landscape, a concern for India, especially along the shared 1,643 km Indo-Myanmar border in Manipur, Nagaland, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. Some of the notable concerns have been the rise of illegal immigrants, drug trafficking and arms trafficking, which can potentially undermine the security landscape in Northeast India.^[ii]

A Prelude to the Coup and Thereafter 

After its independence from British colonial rule in 1948, Myanmar was a fragile representative democracy until the coup of 1962 by General Ne Win, who ruled the state until the eruption of the 1987 anti-government riots, followed by the student protest in 1988. This disturbance led General Ne Win to resign from the office. This was Followed by the “State Law and Order Restoration Council” headed by military officers serving the administration until a barring brief experiment with electoral democracy in 1990 which was countermanded and a coup was staged. It was not till the Constitution of 2008, which set in motion for democratic reform. Followed by the elections in 2010 — in this poll, General Than Shwe was elected, signaling a shift towards a semi-democratic system. Then, in the election of 2015, the National League for Democracy (NLD), led by Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, won by securing 80% of the popular votes, with Htin Kyaw becoming the President of the country.^[iii] In the 2020 polls, the NLD won again. Though official results were not declared, a military junta led by General Min Aung Hlaing staged a coup in 2021, claiming that the poll was not "free and fair" and "not in compliance" with the constitutional law.^[iv] This coup initially triggered widespread protests and civil resistance through the establishment of a parallel government called the National Unity Government (NUG) with its armed wing, the People Defence Force (PDF), with the support of the Ethnic Armed Organisation (EAO), engaging the SAC in armed resistance. 

This resistance has resulted in the military junta losing control in the northwest region, especially along the Indian border, to EAOs such as the Arakan Army (AA), Kachin Independence Army (KIA) and others. 

For India, Myanmar provides land and maritime connectivity as a gateway to Southeast Asia, highlighting the significance of the cooperation. However, this unrest in Myanmar has hampered India’s economic and connectivity initiatives.^[v] The same has also impacted the completion of India’s Developmental Assistance (IDA) in Myanmar; the "Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project," which involves road, rail and marine transportation from Sittwe Port in Myanmar to the Northeastern region; and the India-Myanmar-Thailand trilateral highway (IMT), to name a few.^[vi]

The conflict has also resulted in India hosting over 95,600 displaced people from Myanmar.^[vii] These displaced people are mostly from the Sagaing Region, Chin State and the Magway Region of Myanmar and are predominantly concentrated in the states of Mizoram and Manipur.^[viii]

Owing to this internal situation, the nation has seen a spurt of illegal activities. For instance, on 22 January 2025, 70 people along with 32 vehicles were arrested and over 231 kg of methamphetamine tablets, 16 kg of heroin and 1,375 kg of marijuana worth more than Rs. 355 crore were seized along the India-Myanmar border.^[ix] Apart from this, there have been other fallouts of the developments in Myanmar that directly impact India, especially for internal security and stability. The increased armed infiltration and drug smuggling from Myanmar is one of the chief catalysts of communal unrest between the Metei’s and Kuki’s in Manipur.^[x] On the other hand, the inflow of drugs has resulted in Arunachal Pradesh mandating compulsory drug tests among the local border population. Additionally, there have been instances of violence in the border region. For example, on 27 January 2025, along the Indo-Myanmar border in Manipur, Myanmar-based Kuki National Army-Burma (KNA-B) engaged in a gunfight with an unidentified rival armed group.^[xi] Due to these developments, India has revisited its border management approach.

India’s Relook at Its Border Management

Borders are said to determine the relationships among neighbouring countries and determine security outcomes while also acknowledging the involvement of trade and population mobility. On similar lines, India and Myanmar have closely cooperated to maintain their border since independence, especially with the ethnic linkages between the bordering villages of both countries. These close ties compelled India and Myanmar to introduce the policy of the Free Movement Regime (FMR).

FMR allows the local population in the bordering areas of both countries to enter each other’s territories without passports or permits and for a stay of up to seven days.^[xii] However, due to the evolving security concerns in Myanmar, India has taken decisions to allow the free movement with the “border pass system” to only 10 km, which earlier was for 16 km and to expand 8 border-crossing points to 43 crossing points along the border.^[xiii]

In terms of securing the border, it is proposed that there would be a “Smart Fencing System” (SFS),^[xiv] involving physical barriers, sensors, cameras and a communication system that will enhance the effectiveness of patrols and surveillance operations over time. Fencing has already begun, as stated by India’s Union Home Minister Shri Amit Shah.

Moreover, currently 20 battalions of the Assam Rifles are deployed to monitor and check cross-border infiltration and illegal activities. However, with the growing security concerns along the border areas, the Assam Rifles are supplemented by 15 battalions of the Border Security Force, making the security of the Indo-Myanmar border the primary task of the latter. This additional arrangements complements FMR and fencing.^[xv]

However, these measures face multiple challenges, especially the fencing and FMR. The local communities on both sides of the border, who were the primary beneficiaries of the FMR, have opposed the new restrictions and India’s intention to secure it through smart fencing. The primary objection lies in the fact that the border communities share ethnic linkages, economic interests and social and cultural ties. In response to these concerns, the Indian government has increased the number of designated crossing points from 8 to 43 crossing points, accompanied by strict security protocols at each crossing points to ensure effective monitoring, while balancing the needs of the local communities.

Furthermore, the geographical complexities of the Indo-Myanmar border present significant hurdles to fencing efforts. The geography is characterised by rugged hill terrains, dense forests, steep ridges and peaks interspersed with mountains and rivers. These factors present a formidable challenge to fencing and patrolling the border.^[xvi]

Conclusion

In conclusion, the historical complexities and challenges of the Indo-Myanmar border, further exacerbated by the 2021 military coup, fuelled the growth of rebel groups and intensified illegal activities in the region. In addition to these factors, coupled with fuelling the conflict in Manipur, it has factored and shifted New Delhi’s policy on its border strategy. Moreover, while India’s border continues adapting to the dynamic landscape, it is also essential to consider the need to adapting and addressing challenges ranging from security to geography, by strengthening infrastructure and leveraging technology to secure the border from adverse concerns, at the same time sustaining the historically cross-border ties between India and Myanmar.

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*Leivon Victor Lamkang, Research Intern, Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi
Disclaimer: Views expressed are personal. 

Endnotes 

[i] Jazeera, A. (2023, February 1). Timeline: Two years since the Myanmar military coup. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/2/1/timeline-two-years-since-the-myanmar-military-coup.

[ii] Samarth.Pathak. (n.d.). India: Presentation of key findings from UNODC's World Drug Report 2024 to mark the International Day Against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking. https://www.unodc.org/southasia/frontpage/2024/June/india_-presentation-of-key-findings-from-unodcs-world-drug-report-2024-to-mark-the-international-day-against-drug-abuse-and-illicit-trafficking.html.

[iii] Key events in Myanmar, long under military rule | AP News. (2021, February 3). AP News. https://apnews.com/article/key-events-timeline-myanmar-dee0f68fa82b5f7729191d1bf7beec84.

[iv] Irrawady, T. (2021, November 8). How military electoral interference led to coup in Myanmar. The Irrawady. Retrieved February 4, 2025, from https://www.irrawaddy.com/specials/how-military-electoral-interference-led-to-coup-in-myanmar.html.

[v] Yousuf, D. (2024, March 22). Myanmar crisis and future of India's Act East policy. CLAWS. Retrieved January 22, 2025, from https://www.claws.in/myanmar-crisis-and-future-of-indias-act-east-policy/.

[vi] North East Now. (2024, July 13). Manipur: Jiribam-Imphal railway line completion by late 2025. https://nenow.in/north-east-news/manipur/manipur-jiribam-imphal-railway-line-completion-by-late-2025.html.

[vii] Situation Myanmar situation. (n.d.). https://data.unhcr.org/en/situations/myanmar.

[viii] Lakshman, V. S. (2024b, June 20). Over 5,000 Myanmar refugees take shelter in Manipur's Naga district. The Hindu. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/over-5000-refugees-sheltering-in-manipurs-naga-district-fearing-aerial-bombardment-attacks-in-myanmar-assam-rifles-dg/article68313232.ece.

[ix] DRI seized 32 kg methamphetamine tablets worth around Rs 32 crore in two cases in the North East Region; three were arrested. (n.d.). https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2095227.

[x] Victor, L. (2024, September 18). Manipur’s civil unrest: a growing threat to India’s national security. South Asia Monitor. Retrieved February 4, 2025, from https://www.southasiamonitor.org/spotlight/manipurs-civil-unrest-growing-threat-indias-national-security.

[xi] The Sangai Express English. (2025, January 28). 4 KNA-B cadres slain in gun battle with Manipur outfits. The Sangai Express - Largest Circulated News Paper in Manipur. https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2025/1/28/By-Our-Staff-ReporterIMPHAL-Jan-27-At-least-4-Kuki-militants-have-been-killed-in-a-gunfight-in-an-area-und.html.

[xii] Press Trust of India. (2025, January 5). Border pass now mandatory for citizens of India and Myanmar living within 10-km radius. Firstpost. https://www.firstpost.com/india/border-pass-now-mandatory-for-citizens-of-india-and-myanmar-living-within-10-km-radius-13849965.html.

[xiii] Bobichand, R. (2024, December 28). India’s Changing Policy on Free Movement Regime (FMR) with Myanmar Continues to be an Issue of Conflict in Manipur – Imphal Review of Arts and Politics. https://imphalreviews.in/indias-changing-policy-on-free-movement-regime-fmr-with-myanmar-continues-to-be-an-issue-of-conflict-in-manipur/.

[xiv] Team, E. I. (2023, October 10). ENSURE IAS - best UPSC and IAS Coaching Institute in Delhi, India. Smart Fencing System Along India-Myanmar Border. https://www.ensureias.com/blog/current-affairs/smart-fencing-system-along-india-myanmar-border.

[xv] Pandit, R. (2014, May 10). Defence ministry allows BSF to guard India-Myanmar border, but with rider. The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Defence-ministry-allows-BSF-to-guard-India-Myanmar-border-but-with-rider/articleshow/34944260.cms.

[xvi] Yumlembam, O. (2024, May 18). Indo-Myanmar Border Fencing Initiative: Assessing Imperatives and Challenges. Observer Research Foundation. Retrieved January 24, 2025, from https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/indo-myanmar-border-fencing-initiative-assessing-imperatives-and-challenges.