Indian Council of World Affairs

Abstract: The Gulf is changing fast, and the smaller Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries are moulding external behaviour accordingly. This paper is the last in a series of five papers analysing the changing foreign policy of smaller Gulf States and focuses on Kuwait. The paper is divided into three sections, and the first section discusses the determinants of foreign policy for Kuwait, including geography, demography, society, politics, economy, security and aid, regional environment and international environment. The second section describes the evolution of Kuwait’s foreign policy and the third section discusses the changing dynamics of the foreign policy of Kuwait. Lastly, the paper gives policy recommendations for enhancing India-Kuwait ties. 

Introduction 

As a small state, sharing a land border with big regional countries like Iraq and Saudi Arabia and a maritime border with the Islamic Republic of Iran, Kuwait associates paramount importance to security and territorial integrity and has aligned its foreign policy in consonance. With a history of being invaded by one of its dominant neighbours and liberated by an international coalition of nations three decades ago, it relies on external powers for support, which has impacted its foreign policy. Its foreign policy is undergoing subtle changes depending on a number of determinants, including geographical location, demography, society, politics, economy, security and aid, regional environment and international environment.

Source: Country Studies, US Library of Congress, available at https://countrystudies.us/persian-gulf-states/18.htm (Accessed on August 28, 2024).

Section I: Determinants of Kuwait’s Foreign Policy

Geography 

With the land boundary shaped like the fifth Greek alphabet, epsilon (Εε), Kuwait is the fourth largest GCC country and is situated at one of the driest places on Earth. Slightly larger in area than the Indian state of Mizoram, Kuwait shares its northwestern boundary with Iraq, southwestern boundary with Saudi Arabia and eastern boundary with the Persian Gulf. Kuwait’s strategic location as a natural outlet for the northwestern part of the Arabian Peninsula and the rich petroleum deposit have played an important role in determining its foreign policy. The offshore islands have also had an influence on the foreign policy of Kuwait. The Gulf country has nine offshore islands — Failaka, Bubiyan, Miskan, Warbah, Auhah, Umm al Maradim, Umm al Namil, Kubbar and Qaruh — acting as a boon for being rich in hydrocarbon resources, as well as a bane for being a source of territorial disputes, keeping Kuwait on the edge.[i] For instance, Qaruh Island has a large amount of petroleum sediments and Failaka Island is part of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) Silk Road programme.[ii]

On the other hand, Bubiyan and Warbah have been a bone of contention between the Ottomans and the British in the past and between Iraq and Kuwait in recent times. The islands were important for Iraq as they provided secure access to its ports on the Khawr Abdallah, the only viable alternative to the closed Shatt al Arab.[iii] Iraq claimed control over these islands vehemently; however, it formally recognised Kuwait’s rule of the islands in 1994, as it accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait. The islands were also a source of irritant between Kuwait and Iran, as the latter was concerned about the former gifting these islands to Iraq in 1984. Iran had posed a veiled threat to annex these islands if they were used for Iraqi military bases.[iv]

Society and Demography

Society and demography have played an important role in shaping the external relations of Kuwait, and, in turn, the foreign policy has impacted the social situation of the Gulf country — regional events and foreign policy decisions have impacted and strengthened the sectarian divisions in Kuwait. Forming one-third of the native population, Shias form an important part of Kuwaiti society and have a client-patron relationship with the ruling family. During the Islamic Revolution of Iran in 1979, Kuwaiti Shias protested in support of the Iranian revolutionaries, and the Kuwaiti ruling family exiled the Kuwaiti Shia leader Sayyid Abbas Mohri while reducing the Shia presence in the assembly. During the Iran-Iraq War, when Kuwait supported Saddam Hussein against Iran, the Shias from Lebanon and Iraq retaliated through acts of plane hijacking and an assassination attempt on Prince Jabir.[v]

As Kuwait’s foreign policy decisions had an impact on the sectarian situation in Kuwait and provided impetus to the Shia-Sunni divide, the foreign policy of Kuwait was impacted by the social and demographic composition of Kuwait. For instance, Kuwait has formulated and attempted to alter its foreign policy towards some of the labour-sending countries in response to accusations of exploitation and abuse by the workers. Kuwait is home to around 2.92 million people, with 69 per cent expatriates constituting 27.4 per cent Arabs, 40.3 per cent Asian, 1 per cent African and 0.9 per cent others in 2018.[vi]

The expatriates are certainly a boon for the Kuwaiti economy; however, they are a challenge for its foreign policy. For instance, the issue of the treatment of Filipino workers in Kuwait led to a diplomatic row between the two countries. The death of about 185 Filipino workers in 2016–17 and the murder of Joanna Demafelis led the Philippine government to ban Filipino workers from migrating to Kuwait. In turn, the Kuwait government accused the Philippines embassy of smuggling maids to Kuwait, violating its national laws and international diplomatic rules, arrested non-diplomatic staff, issued arrest warrants against Filipino diplomats, expelled the Filipino ambassador, Renato Villa, and recalled its envoy from Manila.[vii] However, Article 10 of the Kuwait labour law specifies the procedures and rules for the recruitment of non-Kuwaitis with the goal of replacing the expatriate personnel with national manpower gradually.[viii]

Like other Gulf countries, Kuwait is focusing on the nationalisation of the workforce or Kuwaitisation, and in October 2023, the National Committee for the Organization of the Demographic Structure in Kuwait, established by Prime Ministerial Resolution No. 392 of 15 May 2023 approved new policies to increase the number of Kuwaiti citizens working in the public and private sectors. Also, the Kuwaiti Ministry of Interior has begun terminating the services of its expat employees who have reached 60 years of age or have completed 20 years of service.[ix] One of the strategic developmental goals for the national development plans per Kuwait’s Vision 2035 is to train and qualify the national human resource.[x] Kuwaitisation is successful selectively as in some of the sectors specially in government and key industries like electricity and water, the number of Kuwaiti employees has increased. However, Kuwait is also taking measures to ensure the safety and security of the expatriate population; the Kuwaiti Ministry of Health is planning to set up more centres in Kuwait City to conduct medical tests for expatriate workers.[xi] Moreover, there has been an increase of 21 per cent in the number of expatriate workers in 2023 compared to 2021[xii] when the COVID-19 pandemic led to repatriation of huge number of expatriates; Indian embassy in Kuwait facilitated the repatriation of 0.2 million Indians.

Politics

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs was established in 1961 and is the apex body for foreign policy decision making in Kuwait. Kuwait’s foreign policy revolves around achieving international peace and security while maintaining shared friendship with other countries. The principles of Kuwaiti foreign policy support non-interference in internal affairs, maintain good neighbourly relations and adhere to the rule of law. The goals of Kuwait’s foreign policy are to protect the interests of Kuwait, the Arab Gulf, the Arab nation and the Islamic nation. Kuwait is proud of its Arab identity and has actively engaged with the Arab countries through mediation and aid. It aims to strengthen the GCC and the Arab-Arab cooperation. As per Abdulrahman Al-Mutairi, Minister of Information, Culture, and Minister of State for Youth Affairs, Kuwait’s selection as the ‘Arab Capital of Culture and Media’ by Arab League under the UNESCO program emphasizes on its role as a beacon of Arab identity. Similarly, Kuwait focuses on its Islamic identity and its foreign policy is impacted by it to a large extent. Kuwaiti law prohibits the defamation of three Abrahamic religions Islam, Judaism and Christianity and Kuwait has voiced its concerns over incidents of intolerance and inter-faith hostilities taking place even in other countries. It welcomed the United Nations General Assembly resolution on combating islamophobia in 2024.

Evidently, the experience of the Iraqi invasion and the fear of such moves by other dominant neighbours play an important role in foreign policy decision making in Kuwait. Kuwait’s stress on international legitimacy and order, the removal of weapons of mass destruction from the region-a policy approach remnant of the Gulf War-II, and the insistence on humanitarian and preventative diplomacy cater to the need to ensure territorial and maritime security and sovereignty. Apart from that, Kuwait intends to make its presence felt at the regional, as well as global, level through aid and mediation activities. Furthermore, the foreign policy of Kuwait is also influenced by the fact that Kuwait has forged a strong bilateral security alignment with the USA. The current Foreign Minister, Abdullah Ali al Yahya, has been heading the Ministry since January 2024 and has received political and diplomatic training in the USA and India. The Deputy Foreign Minister, Jarrah Jaber al Ahmad al Sabah, is a graduate from the University of Delaware, USA.[xiii]

Economy

The economy plays a crucial role in determining foreign policy; in the case of Kuwait, it has evolved from dependence on trade, pearl diving, shipbuilding and fishing to hydrocarbons and renewable energy. In the 18^th and 19^th centuries like Basra, Kuwait acted as a transshipment centre for trade between India and countries of the Middle East and was also a channel of commerce from the Gulf to Asia, Africa and Europe. After the discovery of oil in the Gulf in early twentieth century, Kuwait’s relations with other countries were strengthened; the Kuwait National Petroleum Company used foreign expertise and technology to develop the refinery at the Al Burqan field. Kuwaiti ruler, Shaikh Mubarak, signed an agreement regarding the granting of oil concessions with the half British-owned Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC). American companies, Amin Oil and the Getty Oil Company represented the interests of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia in the neutral zone along the Saudi-Kuwaiti border, respectively. Kuwait also granted concessions to the Japanese Arabian Oil Company to explore the offshore areas.[xiv]

Kuwait’s economy is heavily dependent on oil and is suffering due to the volatile market, global economic slowdown and escalation of geopolitical tensions in the wake of the Gaza crisis, climate shocks, as well as domestic challenges, such as an oversized public sector, frequent government changes and sluggish reforms. Kuwait’s 2024–27 work plan, outlined in February 2024, aiming to reduce unsustainable public spending, decrease reliance on oil revenues, diversify the economy and curb unsustainable fiscal policies, holds promise for the near future. It also aims to promote private sector expansion by enhancing liquidity management, credit facility implementing tax reforms and adjusting subsidies.[xv] Kuwait Vision 2035 aims to transform the country into a financial and trade hub with the private sector leading the economy and sustainable diversification by promoting non-oil sectors.[xvi]

Kuwait is a founding member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) with Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. The OPEC was founded with the objective of coordinating and unifying petroleum policies among member countries, so as to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers; an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations; and a fair return on capital to those investing in the industry.[xvii] Kuwait focuses on energy diplomacy with most of its oil exports going to the Asian countries and refined products going to Europe. It has signed a deal with Saudi Arabia for the joint development of the Dorra gas field. Kuwait realises the efficacy of economic diplomacy and is investing in other countries. Kuwait’s Investment Authority, the oldest and fifth-largest sovereign wealth fund in the world, has assets in the Americas, Europe, Asia-Pacific and emerging markets. Kuwait’s investments in Africa have been valued at up to $28 billion.[xviii]

Similarly, the country looks forward to attracting investments from other countries, and to that end is creating a new wealth fund called the Ciyada Development Fund for domestic investment projects.[xix] Kuwait Direct Investment Promotion Authority has granted foreign ownership licenses for a total of 69 foreign-owned firms, including the US companies.[xx] The Ministry of Foreign Affairs states that the Gulf country seeks to enhance the economic relationship between the State of Kuwait and the international community by coordinating with local, regional and international economic establishments, preparing regular economic studies and remaining updated on the latest economic affairs around the world. The country also intends to actively participate in regional and international meetings and conferences and form joint economic committees.[xxi]

Security and Aid

Security is an important determinant of foreign policy decision making for Kuwait. Scarred by the Iraqi invasion, it has an incessant need for security and has found a strong partner in the USA. The two countries signed a Defence Cooperation Agreement in 1991 and an Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement (ACSA) in 2013. With around 13,500 US forces based in Kuwait, it is the fourth largest host for US forces after Germany, Japan and South Korea.[xxii] Also, Kuwait has maintained strong defence ties with the UK; per the UK ambassador to Kuwait, the two countries have a shared doctrine and similar military approach.[xxiii] Kuwait is also engaged in aid diplomacy, providing development cooperation under the framework for the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. It created the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development in 1961 to provide loans at low interest rates and to co-finance projects. The fund also provides technical assistance to support development projects with high priority to partner countries. Kuwait provided $263.8 million of official development assistance in 2022, constituting 0.16 per cent of the gross national income.[xxiv]

The top 10 recipients of its aid in 2022 were Egypt, Senegal, China, Jordan, Argentina, Tunisia, Uzbekistan, Bangladesh, Gambia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.[xxv] Within the region as well, Kuwait has been at the forefront in providing aid, pledging $17 million to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to support earthquake victims in Syria and Türkiye in March 2023.[xxvi] In September, it announced a joint funding with the UK to help UNICEF deliver aid in Gaza and Yemen.[xxvii] A plausible explanation for its active aid diplomacy, or Dinar Diplomacy, is that, following a centrist foreign policy, Kuwait aimed to avoid an active or initiatory role and tried to make as many friends as possible — more friends mean more leverage and more leverage means better deterrence.[xxviii]

Regional Environment

The regional environment is an important determinant in the foreign policy formulation. Kuwait is a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and is an advocate of unity among the other member countries. Kuwait has been a keen observer of regional issues and has responded in a positive and constructive manner. The tone has been majorly conciliatory, and it has shown a willingness to take the initiative in resolving the issues. For instance, it has played a significant role during the Qatar crisis through its mediation activities under the able leadership of Sheikh Sabah al Ahmad al Sabah. The blockading countries, Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Bahrain, conveyed the 13 demands to Qatar through Kuwait. Similarly, during the Arab Spring, Kuwait focused on supporting the regional countries without getting overtly involved, balancing domestic stability and external relations.[xxix] Also, it gave a call to Arab countries to fight together against Israel in the wake of the Gaza crisis, ruling out any possibility of it joining the Abraham Accords in the immediate future.

International Environment

The international environment has also played an important role in the foreign policy formation in Kuwait. Being a major non-NATO ally, Kuwait has maintained a strong and vibrant relationship with the US, which established diplomatic ties with the Gulf country in 1961. The fact that the coalition led by the US came to support Kuwait during the Iraqi invasion has had a deep impact on the foreign policy of Kuwait. It played a significant role in the complete withdrawal of the US combat troops from Iraq in 2011. The US supports Kuwait’s sovereignty, security and independence, as well as its multilateral diplomatic efforts to build greater cooperation among the GCC countries, and the Gulf country is an important partner in the US counterterrorism efforts. The US provides military and defence technical assistance to Kuwait, and both countries have signed a trade and investment framework agreement.[xxx] However the alignment with US is not constant or seamless and with the ouster of Baath led government in Iraq, Kuwait has been asserting itself in the foreign policy arena. Another factor that led Kuwait to be distant from US on the regional issues including maintaining ties with Iran is rooted in its quest to balance its ties with the superpowers amidst the ongoing rivalry between US and Russia and the trade war between US and China. Consequently, it has actively engaged with Russia as well as China.

Kuwait’s relations with Russia have witnessed ups and downs, with the two establishing diplomatic relations as early as 1963. Concerned about Baathist Iraq in the neighbourhood and the erstwhile Soviet Union’s quest to support non-capitalist countries during the Cold War, Kuwait wanted to keep the Soviet Union in good humour. However, the use of veto power against Kuwait’s UN membership in 1961 and the consistent support of the Soviet Union for Iraq led to a break in ties. In the 1960s, the two countries signed agreements of technical and cultural cooperation, with Kuwait becoming the only Gulf country to have relations with the USSR. In the 1980s, relations between Kuwait and the USSR intensified as the two sides perceived the Camp David Accords as detrimental to the settlement of the Arab-Israel conflict. The two countries got engaged in military and industrial cooperation as the Soviet Union changed its policy from engaging in ideological confrontations with the West to prioritising human values and international law. In the wake of the Iran-Iraq War, the Soviet Union signed 300 million deals with Kuwait when the US refused to provide them stingers in 1984 and also sent assistance to Kuwait after becoming a victim of the 1987 Tanker’s War in the Gulf.[xxxi]

Following the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Russia-Gulf ties progressed at a slow pace, with Russia refraining from overindulgence in the region and concentrating on maintaining regional stability. In line with this, Kuwait and Russia developed relations in the field of diplomacy and cultural cooperation. When Russia extended military cooperation with the GCC, Kuwait and the UAE were the first two countries to respond, with the former signing a defence cooperation agreement and the latter purchasing defence weapons from Moscow. Soon after, Russia oriented its foreign policy to the GCC away from Euro-Atlantic lines. With Yevgeny Primakov becoming the Foreign Minister, Russia began to take its role in the East seriously. During this time, the support provided by the GCC countries to the rebel groups of the Caucasus in light of the Chechnya war and the GCC countries being a hub for Russian organised crime, including drug and human trafficking, acted as irritants for bilateral relations of Russia and Kuwait. Later, when President Vladimir Putin came to power, Russia aimed to stabilise the situation in the Middle East and began forging strong economic ties with the GCC countries. Consequently, Russia expressed its interest in bilateral cooperation in the fields of energy, oil and gas, civil construction, irrigation, agriculture and infrastructure. During the Arab Spring, Russia and Gulf countries had a difference of opinion, especially on the assistance provided by the Gulf countries to the Syrian rebels against the government of Bashar al-Assad. Recently, Kuwait has condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine while maintaining that sanctions imposed on Russia are unjustified and should be lifted as soon as possible.[xxxii] More importantly, Kuwait realizes the linkages between Russia and China and has maintained ties with Beijing.

Kuwait understands the significance of maintaining ties with China and was the first Gulf country to recognise the People’s Republic of China. Kuwait perceives China as a strategic partner; the two countries signed a strategic partnership agreement in 2015. Kuwait appreciates the fact that after Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990, China strongly opposed the invasion and made efforts as a permanent member of the UN Security Council for the restoration of Kuwait’s independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity. It sent a 60-member firefighting team to extinguish the oil well fires. On the other hand, Beijing appreciates Kuwait as the Arab state offering the largest amount of government concessional loans to China. It is to be noted that Kuwait is the first Middle Eastern country to sign Belt and Road cooperation documents and is the only GCC country where a Chinese medical team has been stationed.[xxxiii] The two countries have also signed the mutual visa exemption agreement in 2014.[xxxiv] Analysing the extent of bilateral economic engagement, Mordechai Cheziza has examined the synergy between the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and the Kuwait Vision 2035.[xxxv] Kuwait understands the importance of maintaining ties with all the three countries US, Russia and China for maintaining positive neutrality at the core of its foreign policy. 

Section II: Evolution of Kuwait’s Foreign Policy

Foreign policy has had great significance for the Kuwaiti government since the beginning of the modern political history of the country going back to the early 18^th century. When the Bani Utub tribe of Central Arabia settled in Kuwait, they selected Shaykh al Sabah as their leader with a primary responsibility to represent his community in foreign policy and negotiate with the Ottoman Türkiye and the other neighbouring tribes. One of the major issues faced by him was the migration of the Al Khalifa family to Qatar and subsequently to Bahrain, where they rule currently. In the 19^th century, Kuwait mainly followed a policy of “positive distancing” where it was polite but distant to the powers like the British, the Ottomans and the Wahhabis of Saudi Arabia. However, later on, Kuwait realized the importance of ending its isolation as Abd Allah al Sabah II got closer to the Ottomans and Mubarak the Great. Further, Kuwait also took help of the British against the Ottoman forces and gave them control of the Kuwaiti foreign policy until becoming independent in 1961.[xxxvi]

The foreign policy of post-independence Kuwait has been shaped by Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah, the great balancer who was the foreign minister for four decades (1963-2003) and emir for 14 years (2003-2020). He followed the policy of “positive neutrality” by keeping Kuwait on the sidelines of international conflicts while seeking to negotiate their resolution.[xxxvii] Kuwait’s foreign policy under him has been influenced by two external events. First, the Iran-Iraq War fueled the external insecurities and led to domestic instability on account of the bombing of the US embassy (1983)-an assassination attempt on Kuwaiti Emir (1985) and pro-democracy movements (1989-90). Secondly, the invasion by Iraq prompted Kuwait to maintain balanced cordial ties with the neighbouring countries and ensure stability in the region. It also made Kuwait accept the presence of external actors in the region to the extent that it has maintained a warm relationship with Washington, hosting the largest number of US bases in the region.

While calling for international peace and security, Kuwait has been focusing on emerging as a strong mediator emphasizing on humanitarian and preventative diplomacy.[xxxviii] Being a victim of Iraqi occupation, Kuwait focuses on maintaining regional stability and to that end is engaged in active mediation. As a small state, it maintains a neutral stand and has gradually taken the role of a trusted mediator in the Gulf and the entire region. The fact that Kuwait is socially progressive and ranks as top Arab country on the social progress index released by Harvard Business School has also given it strength to focus on mediation efforts abroad. Kuwait has been able to end poverty and hunger and is performing well on the sustainable development goals. Kuwait's reputation as a mediator has got boosted by its eminent personalities such as Sheikh Sabah, commonly referred to as the “Dean of Arab Diplomats,” who was well-respected in the region for his wisdom and humanitarian endeavours. Kristian Coates Ulrichsen mentions that Kuwait’s mediation role was also rooted in its need for national security and to contribute to regional security.[xxxix] Over time, Kuwait has mediated a number of conflicts between Saudi Arabia and Egypt in North Yemen (1968), Bangladesh and Pakistan (1974), Abu Dhabi and Dubai (1979), Saudi Arabia and Libya (1982), Oman and South Yemen (1984) and Türkiye and Bulgaria (1989).[xl] Its mediating efforts have however mostly been restricted to the Arab-Islamic World, reflecting the importance that religion and ethnic identity plays in its outreach and vision. Its mediating role has earned it good will and contributed to regional stability and security. 

In recent times, it has played an important role in the Yemen crisis and ensured that the Gulf crisis of 2017 did not escalate further before being resolved in 2021. Kuwait offered to mediate even during the heightened Iran-Israel tensions in the wake of the Gaza crisis. Another aspect of Kuwait’s evolving foreign policy is its role as a balancer when the traditionally respected leaders like the Sultan Qaboos of Oman are no more, and the younger generation of leaders, including the crown prince of Saudi Arabia, Mohammad bin Salman, and the President of the UAE, Mohammad bin Zayed al Nahyan, are at the helm of affairs. Kuwait recognised the importance of maintaining warm relations with Iran and has been cautiously engaging within the neighbourhood. Besides, it has had a restrained reaction to the US withdrawal from JCPOA in 2018.

Kuwait’s balancing act has evolved into “positive neutrality,” especially after the invasion of Iraq. A 1981 intelligence assessment by the US National Foreign Assessment Centre and Central Intelligence Agency states that Kuwait aligned itself more closely with Iraq as well as joined the Gulf Cooperation Council in an attempt to balance its ties in the neighbourhood.[xli] When Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait in 1990, despite the latter supporting Iraq during the Iran-Iraq War, it shattered the trust of Kuwait, prompting it to focus on positive neutrality in foreign affairs. The idea can be broken down into “positivity of intentions” and “neutrality in approach.” For Kuwait, the foreign policy has to be formed with a positive intention to maintain a stable region while being neutral to the core. The neutral approach provides Kuwait with an edge as a mediator and a provider of humanitarian aid; Kuwait played an important role in collecting aid for rebuilding Iraq and reconstructing Syria. Since the policy of positive neutrality is suitable for a small state like Kuwait sandwiched between heavyweight neighbours like Iran, Iraq and Saudi Arabia, the successors of Sheikh Sabah, Nawaf Al Ahmad Al Jaber Al Sabah, continued the policy (2020–2023) and Sheikh Meshal Al Ahmad Al Jaber Al Sabah (2023–contd.) is unlikely to deviate from this policy.[xlii]

Section III: Changing Dynamics of Kuwait’s Foreign Policy

Diluting the US Dependence

With respect to other GCC countries, Kuwait’s foreign policy is changing at a slower pace; however, there are certain nuances that need to be assessed. Kuwait’s foreign policy is majorly focused on positive neutrality, but recently it has started expanding ties with other countries within the region and beyond in search of alternatives. For instance, along with maintaining a robust tie with the US as a major non-NATO ally and hosting the largest number of American bases in the region, it is also keen to have strong ties with Russia in food security, the military and education sectors. Kuwait recognises that Russia has considerable influence on Iraq and realises the significance of maintaining ties with Russia. During the visit to Moscow in October 2024, the Kuwaiti Foreign Minister informed his counterpart about the talks held with Iraq on demarcating maritime borders. Russian Foreign Minister commended the fact that Kuwait took a balanced position towards the Ukraine crisis.[xliii]

Multilateral Institutions

Recently, Kuwait has begun to enhance its relations at the bilateral and multilateral levels with an aim to foster its status on the global stage. To that end, the new Kuwaiti emir, Sheikh Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, has adopted an ambitious approach and has begun developing relations with international partners, as well as global organisations. At the 79^th session of the UNGA, the Kuwaiti Crown Prince had 44 meetings with the Heads of States and other senior officials, focusing on bilateral relationships. Kuwait has been also trying to further develop its ties with the European Union (EU) in strategic areas; the first EU-GCC Summit took place in Brussels in October 2024 under the theme “Strategic Partnership for Peace and Prosperity,” and the joint statement mentions that the 29^th Joint Council and Ministerial meeting will be held in Kuwait in 2025. Kuwait has also joined the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation as a dialogue partner in 2023 with an aim to boost internal and external security.[xliv] Also, it has applied for BRICS membership in 2023. As a small country, Kuwait has realised the significance of joining multilateral organisations; the EU-GCC joint statement calls for the complete demarcation of the Kuwait-Iraq boundary beyond point 162 and stresses the importance of the 2012 Kuwait-Iraq agreement to regulate maritime navigation in Khor Abdullah.[xlv] Multilateral organisations provide a platform to smaller countries for voicing their regional concerns.

GCC Unity

Kuwait advocates for GCC unity, believing that smaller and less influential GCC states will need the support of the bigger, richer and more influential members for their comprehensive security, including in areas, such as finance, economy, governance and regime security.[xlvi] The Kuwaiti emir’s initial official visits were to the GCC countries, underlining the countries’ commitment to enhancing integration in the Gulf and advancing joint cooperation to new horizons and newer dimensions. Other than that, Kuwait has bilateral relations with individual GCC countries. Recently, it signed agreements on defence and cybersecurity with the UAE and on charity and humanitarian relief with Qatar and Saudi Arabia. With changing regional dynamics, Kuwait is also redirecting its foreign policy alignments vis-à-vis Saudi Arabia. For long, its policies were completely aligned with those of Saudi Arabia, but in recent years, a nuanced divergence has been visible between the two, as evident in the case of the Qatar crisis and Yemen issues. Earlier, Kuwait supported and joined the Saudi-led military intervention in Yemen, but now it seeks a political solution instead of a military one. The Saudi-Kuwait divergence became more open during the Qatar crisis as Kuwait did not boycott Qatar like Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, the UAE and Egypt did in 2017. Instead, it took diplomatic steps to end the crisis.[xlvii]

Engaging Countries beyond the GCC

The ongoing Gaza crisis and the renewed rebel activities in Syria have underscored that the GCC is not aloof from the impacts of the regional conflicts, and Kuwait understands that it should have a seat at the table, advocating for peace and stability. Kuwait is engaging with Jordan and Iraq to enhance transparency in financial transactions. It has signed a tax treaty with Baghdad to avoid double taxation and curb tax evasion on income and capital taxes.[xlviii] Kuwait’s emir visited Jordan and received Al-Hussein Necklace, the highest civilian award. However, Kuwait is not yet ready to build a warm relationship with Israel. It is committed to the Arab peace initiative and has maintained the stand that it will be the last country to sign the Abraham Accords. Completing 60 years of their partnership, Kuwait and Türkiye have signed agreements on disaster management, housing and infrastructure.[xlix] The re-emergence of Türkiye on the regional theatre, especially after the fall of Assad in Syria, also makes it important for Kuwait and other Gulf countries to maintain warm ties with Ankara. Similarly, Kuwait is trying to strengthen its relations with Egypt as the former hosts a substantial number of expatriates from the North African nation. Emir’s visit to Egypt and Türkiye reflects Kuwait’s focus on countries beyond the GCC.

Engagement with Africa and Latin America

Kuwait is also keen on developing warm ties with other African and Latin American countries, and KFAED has been providing development funds to these countries on a regular basis. Founded in 1961, KFAED had been providing aid to Arab countries for more than a decade until 1974, when it expanded its activities to non-Arab African countries. Currently, half of the fund’s operations are directed to Africa in sectors, such as infrastructure, agriculture, electricity, transport and communications, education and health. The total volume of projects financed by KFAED Africa since its inception until now has reached $9.7 billion.[l] Other than that, Kuwait eyes broader cooperation with African countries in cybersecurity and digital challenges and ways to operate the African Standby Force.[li] The defining feature of Kuwait’s relations with Africa is its active engagement at multiple levels of state policy, civil society and individual donors. The ties with Africa are also reflected in the fact that it held the status of permanent observer at the African Union in 2011 and hosted the third Arab-African Summit in 2013.[lii] Kuwait is also focused on extending ties with the Latin American countries, and aid is a major pillar of this diplomacy. KFAED’s activity in Latin America and Caribbean countries began in 1992, spanning 15 countries with over 52 developmental projects.[liii] OPEC members Kuwait and Venezuela will be celebrating 60 years of diplomatic relations in 2025. Kuwait and Brazil have signed agreements on science, technology, sports, the environment and air services.

Looking East

Despite its heavy dependence on the US and recognising the significance and presence of international actors like Russia, Kuwait is expanding its ties with the rising Asian economies like China and India. Kuwait has an economic engagement with China’s BRI and does not want to be deprived of the economic gains the project promises to bring. In November 2024, Kuwait collaborated with China on solar projects worth $800 million.[liv] Kuwait looks at China as a reliable economic partner, as the latter has become its top trading partner. Kuwait’s oil wealth, China’s need for energy and the prospect of higher returns to investments in China are the key driving factors to rapidly growing economic relations between the two countries.[lv] Lately, Kuwait has been focusing on developing ties with the East, but the pace has been slow and needs momentum. For instance, major visits to these economies have been in the first decade of the 21^st century. Shaykh Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jabir Al Sabah, Amir of Kuwait, led a high-level delegation to China from 10–12 May 2009 with a private stopover in Hong Kong. Earlier in July 2004, his trip as Prime Minister to important far-eastern countries had taken him to China, Japan, Singapore and South Korea. Subsequently, he visited Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Thailand in June 2006. However, Kuwait is exploring the possibilities of further boosting mutually beneficial ties with the growing economies of the East.

Kuwait’s Engagement with Central Asia and South Asia

Kuwait is pursuing active engagement with Central Asian countries through aid diplomacy, led by the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development (KFAED). Kuwait has assisted Kazakhstan in agriculture and water supply initiatives. The two countries are in the process of signing an agreement on the avoidance of double taxation as they celebrated 30 years of establishing diplomatic contact in 2023.[lvi] Kuwait is keen to enhance strategic engagement with another Central Asian country Tajikistan, by focusing on trade, cultural exchange, counter-terrorism and climate initiatives.[lvii] Kuwaiti charities extended assistance to Tajikistan in the wake of earthquakes and floods that happened over the last two decades.[lviii] Kuwait’s engagement with Central Asia emerges through its membership in the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (CICA), being a dialogue partner at the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and supporting the Gulf’s engagement with the region by holding regular summits. In the 2023 Summit, the GCC countries expressed interest in investing in the region’s energy sector.[lix] Moreover, the ties with Central Asian countries are as per Kuwait’s strategy of extending development aid to nations where it can have a meaningful impact while securing its long-term partnerships.

Along with engaging with Central Asia and China, Kuwait also has active relations with the South Asian countries, some of whom had sent their militaries in the liberation of Kuwait and mine clearing activities earlier. Sri Lanka had voted in favor of the UNSC resolution demanding withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait. South Asian countries also have economic engagements with Kuwait and they contribute to building Kuwaiti economy by sending their manpower to the oil rich gulf country, for instance Kuwait hosts more than 100, 000 Sri Lankans. Other than that, these countries have significant trade ties; for instance, the volume of non-oil trade between Kuwait and Pakistan reached more than 590 million in 2023 and the two countries are seeking collaborations in economic and commercial fields. Pakistani PM visited Kuwait in November 2023 and signed a number of bilateral deals in manpower, Information Technology, Mineral exploration, Food Security, Defence and Energy.[lx] Also, when the Pakistani PM met the crown prince of Kuwait on the sidelines of UNGA session in September 2024, the two leaders discussed the possibilities of enhancing mutual relations under the rubric of Special Investment Facilitation Council.[lxi] Kuwait provides soft aid to Bangladesh in energy and agriculture sector and will play an important role in Bangladesh’s vision of  becoming a developed state by 2041; the two countries have signed the most favoured nation agreement on investments in 2016.[lxii]  6000 members of Bangladesh Military Contingent (BMC) are engaged in re-construction of Kuwait by being part of Kuwait Armed Forces under Operation Kuwait Punarghathan and Bangladesh looks forward to expand the labor market in Kuwait for its nationals.[lxiii] However Kuwait is keen to engage with the rising economy of India, majorly in the field of technology and startup eco system. The two countries have signed a strategic partnership agreement in December 2024.  

Kuwait’s Engagement with India

With trade as the defining feature, and India being the top trading partner of Kuwait, the bilateral relation is moving at a comfortable pace, but there is potential and need to provide impetus to the existing ties. The Kuwait-India trade ties go back to before the discovery of oil when wooden dhows carrying dates, Arabian horses and pearls were brought to India to be traded for wood, cereals, clothes and spices. Currently, Kuwait provides about 3 per cent of India’s total energy needs. The Gulf country owns 6 per cent of global oil reserves and has proven natural gas reserves of 63 trillion cubic feet. India and Kuwait intend to transform the cooperation from a buyer-seller relationship to a comprehensive partnership with greater collaboration in upstream and downstream sectors. Indian and Kuwaiti companies may cooperate in the fields of exploration and production of oil and gas, refining, engineering services, petrochemical industries and new and renewable energy. As the two countries have a strong hydrocarbon cooperation, it is time to expand it to the renewable sector. Commemorating 60 years of diplomacy in 2021, the two countries established the India-Kuwait solar forum, and during the recent visit by PM Modi to Kuwait, the Gulf country joined the International Solar Alliance (ISA) spearheaded by India. It intends to achieve its targets of supplying 15 per cent of its peak power demand by renewable energy, and discussions are underway in the India-Kuwait Solar Forum to collaborate with renewable energy organisations and private players.[lxiv] In this context, there is potential for Kuwait and India to collaborate in green hydrogen, with India having launched the National Green Hydrogen Mission and Kuwait engaged in the Renewables and Hydrogen Masterplan Project.

As far as investments are concerned, the Kuwait Investment Authority (KIA) has made indirect investments in India through global fund managers, majorly in liquid assets like equities. KIAʼs estimated investments in India are more than $10 billion, and it plans to double its investment. KIA has been active in overseas FDI and seeks bilateral collaboration for investments in third countries. However, it has very few direct investments in India. There is a potential for the two countries to enhance investments through KIA. Indian companies like Larsen and Toubro Ltd, Essar, Tech Mahindra, Ashok Leyland, Malabar Gold, Joyalukkas, Titan, Tata, Himalaya, Hero, Kalyan Jewellers, Air India and Indigo Air have their branches in Kuwait. Similarly, Kuwaiti companies like Alghanim Industry, Al Shaya Group, Asiya Investments, NAPESCO and Bouquitat have their presence in India. In April 2024, a MoU between the Capital Markets Authority (CMA) and the International Financial Services Centres Authority (IFSCA) – GIFT City was signed between the two countries. Also, the two countries signed the Bilateral Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement (BIPPA) in 2003 for a tenure of 15 years which expired in 2018. The two countries have expressed interest in exploring investment opportunities in sectors like technology, tourism, healthcare, food security and logistics.

India and Kuwait have signed a MoU on defence cooperation by promoting joint military exercises, training of defence personnel, coastal defence, maritime safety and joint development and production of defence equipment. It is an opportune time to strengthen the maritime cooperation with a history of Kuwaiti voyages to India on wooden dhows loaded with dates, Arabian horses and pearls that were bartered for wood, cereals, clothes and spices from India. India and Kuwait have ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1995 and 1986 respectively and consequently are engaged in data sharing on maritime security, combating illegal fishing and search and rescue operations for stranded vessels. Kuwait is focused on defence modernisation catalysed by the Iraq experience and the need to protect its territory. Till now, it has been dependent on external actors for its security, but gradually it is also emphasising fostering its defence industry. The India-Kuwait defence partnership will be beneficial for both countries. The two countries are also looking at cooperation in counterterrorism, intelligence sharing, capacity building and law enforcement and combating transnational crimes like money laundering and drug trafficking through cooperation in cybersecurity. Some of the newer areas of cooperation between the two countries are sports, education, technology, emerging technologies, semiconductors, artificial intelligence and e-governance.

Forming the largest expatriate community in Kuwait, 1.5 million Indians live in Kuwait, constituting 21 per cent of the total population and 30 per cent of its total workforce. A sizable number of Indians (1,000 doctors, 500 dentists and around 24,000 nurses) are engaged in the medical profession, contributing to the health infrastructure of Kuwait. Medical diplomacy, or “Chikitsa Kootniti,” can be one of the major tenets of the India-Kuwait bilateral partnership. The two countries have discussed the possibility of Indian pharmaceutical manufacturing plants in Kuwait and strengthening cooperation in medical products regulation. Indians have helped build Kuwait by contributing to the oil industry, infrastructure development and the service sector. On the other hand, they send over $2 billion in remittances to India, which constitutes around 2.3 per cent of the total remittances received. However, there is a need for a branch of Kuwaiti banks to operate in India; the two countries can cooperate and facilitate the opening of a Kuwaiti bank to ease the transfer of remittances for the expatriate population and their families in India. Secondly, the National Board of Accreditation registration is not yet mandatory in India, due to which Indian engineers working in Kuwait seeking visa renewal face challenges. The two countries can seek a solution in consultation with the Kuwaiti Society of Engineers, the body responsible for certifying the authenticity of all engineers working in Kuwaiti industries.

Indians in Kuwait act as the living bridge for the bilateral ties. Recently a Netflix series, “Muhammad Ali Road,” has been based on Kuwaiti families living on the Muhammad Ali Street of Bombay. Indian engineer Ahmad Ismail released his autobiography titled “Smile of Ismail: 60 Years of Engineering” after living in Kuwait for six decades. The India-Kuwait relationship is growing and is bound to grow further with India’s economic rise. India is set to become the world’s third-largest economy by 2030 on its way to becoming a developed country, “Viksit Bharat,” by 2047. Emerging as a hub of human resources, India is focusing on enhancing the skills of its potential migrants and has started the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana, under which people can enroll in free courses to develop their skills in virtual mode. It has also developed an e-Migrate portal to promote fair and ethical hiring practices by connecting prospective migrants with foreign employers’ recruitment agencies and provides an eLocker for the safekeeping of relevant travel documents. Similarly, it provides pre-departure orientation training to prepare migrants for their life abroad and make them aware of their rights, duties and responsibilities as international migrants. Along with this, India provides welfare measures through the Indian Community Welfare Fund, the Pravasi Bhartiya Bima Yojana and the MADAD consular grievance portal in destination countries. Likewise, the Kuwaiti government has ensured that Indians can pay their bills safely through the Bharat Bill Payment Service (BBPS) provided by Al-Muzaini Exchange Company, the leading money exchanger in Kuwait. Also increasing the seat capacities of bilateral flights will support the Indian migration to Kuwait.

The Indian PM made an official visit to Kuwait in 2024 after a gap of 43 years; the last time such a visit was made was in 1981. But now India is rightly extending the hand of cooperation and collaboration with Kuwait. PM Modi’s visit to Kuwait in December 2024 has opened various newer avenues of cooperation as the two countries agreed to elevate their relations to a “strategic partnership” that will lead to comprehensive and structured cooperation in key areas, including politics, trade, investment, defence, security, energy, culture, education, technology and people-to-people ties. The two countries signed agreements on defence, cultural exchange and sports. Secondly, the fact that Kuwait conferred its highest award, “The Order of Mubarak Al Kabeer,” on PM Modi, who was also the guest of honour at the 26^th Arabian Gulf Cup, reflects that Kuwait is willing to strengthen its partnership with India that had hit a rough patch in 2022 with the Indian ambassador to Kuwait being summoned by the Kuwait Foreign Ministry over inappropriate remarks about Prophet Muhammad by an Indian politician Nupur Sharma, leading to protests across Gulf countries. India is an important partner for Kuwait in food security. Despite being at a high rank on the food security index, Kuwait faces challenges like dependence on imports, limited domestic production, vulnerable import routes and population growth, and there is potential and opportunity for Kuwaiti companies interested in investing in the food parks in India.

Lastly, India and Kuwait have good coordination at the UN and other multinational fora. India welcomes Kuwait’s entry as a dialogue partner in SCO during India’s presidency in 2023 and hopes for an early conclusion of the India-GCC Free Trade Agreement with Kuwait as the current chair of GCC. The two countries concur on the need for UN reforms and expansion of the UNSC in both categories of membership to make it more representative, credible and effective. Both countries emphasise peaceful resolution of conflicts in the region and attach primacy to security and stability in the Strait of Hormuz through which Kuwaiti oil passes through. Also, as part of the MoU between the diplomatic institutes Sheikh Saud Al Nasser Al Sabah Kuwaiti Diplomatic Institute and the Sushma Swaraj Institute of Foreign Service, both sides agreed to organise the Special Course for diplomats and officers from Kuwait in New Delhi. There are ample opportunities for cooperation in newer areas like space research, artificial intelligence, digital governance and so on and the opening of Indian institutes of eminence like IITs and IIMs in Kuwait will provide the much-needed momentum.

Conclusion

Being a small state situated among big regional countries like Iraq and Saudi Arabia and with a maritime border with the Islamic Republic of Iran, Kuwait associates paramount importance to security and territorial integrity and has aligned its foreign policy accordingly. With a history of being invaded by one of its dominant neighbours, Iraq, and liberated by an international coalition of nations 30 years ago, Kuwait depends on external powers for support, which has impacted its foreign policy.

The foreign policy of post-independence Kuwait has been carved by the positive neutrality of Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah, Foreign Minister for four decades and emir for 14 years. Positively Neutral Kuwait remained on the sidelines of international conflicts while actively seeking to consolidate its profile as a mediator and facilitate negotiate their resolution.

However, Kuwait’s foreign policy is evolving, and it is expanding its relations with alternative powers like Russia and China on the one hand and is forging ties with countries beyond the GCC in the region. It is recognising the significance of multilateral institutions and realising that their membership provides the required platform to voice one’s concerns. Kuwait also considers the importance of fostering ties with countries in South Asia, Central Asia, Africa and Latin America. Kuwaiti foreign policy is changing as it is developing from being based on “positive distancing” isolating itself from the neighborhood to “positive neutrality” not taking sides in conflicts to “positive interdependence” engaging with the neighborhood and beyond, building linkages and interdependencies.

Kuwait shares a historical relationship with India currently based on trade, energy, investment and migration. There is potential to expand the bilateral ties, and the two countries are actively working to strengthen bilateral relations through comprehensive and structured cooperation in key areas of trade and investment, defence and security, energy, culture, education and technology.

*****

*Dr. Lakshmi Priya, Research Fellow, Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA)
Disclaimer: The views expressed are personal.

Endnotes 

[i] Kuwait Government, Topography of Kuwait, available at https://e.gov.kw/sites/kgoenglish/Pages/Visitors/AboutKuwait/KuwaitAtaGlaneTopography.aspx accessed on September 12, 2024.

[ii] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Silk Road Program, Failaka Island, available at https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/silk-road-themes/underwater-heritage/failaka-island accessed on September 12, 2024.

[iii] The Gulf War,1991, Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute, United States Department of State, available at https://history.state.gov/milestones/1989-1992/gulf-war accessed on September 12, 2024.

[iv] Harry Brown, The Iraq-Kuwait Boundary Dispute: Historical Background and the UN Decisions of 1992 and 1993, IBRU Boundary and Security Bulletin, October 1994, pp. 66-80.

[v] Ibrahim Al Marashi, Shattering the myths about Kuwaiti Shia, Al Jazeera, June 30, 2015, available at https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2015/6/30/shattering-the-myths-about-kuwaiti-shia accessed on 12 September 2024.

[vi] P. R. Kumaraswamy, Md. Muddassir Quamar, Persian Gulf 2019: India’s Relations with the Region, Palgrave Macmillan Singapore, p. 117.

[vii] Colin Dwyer, Viral ‘Rescue’ Videos Ignite Dispute Between Philippines And Kuwait, National Public Radio, Washington DC, April 26, 2018, available at https://www.everand.com/article/377517903/Viral-Rescue-Videos-Ignite-Dispute-Between-Philippines-And-Kuwait accessed on September 12, 2024.

[viii] State of Kuwait, New Private Sector Labor Law No. 6 of 2010, with Explanatory Memorandum, Al-Kuwait Al-Yawm, The Official Gazette, Issue No. 263, February 21, 2010.

[ix] Sadek, George, Kuwait: New Policies Approved to Replace Expats with Kuwaiti Citizens in Public and Private Sectors, 2023, Library of Congress, available at https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2023-11-14/kuwait-new-policies-approved-to-replace-expats-with-kuwaiti-citizens-in-public-and-private-sectors/?loclr=ealln accessed on September 12, 2024.

[x] New Kuwait ‘Kuwait Vision 2035’, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, State of Kuwait, available at https://www.mofa.gov.kw/en/pages/kuwait-vision-2035 accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xi] Solution to a long-standing problem; Kuwait coming up with new project to pay more attention to health of expats, Kerala Kaumudi, November 21, 2023, available at https://keralakaumudi.com/en/news/news.php?id=1193483&u=solution-to-a-long-standing-problem-kuwait-coming-up-with-new-project-to-pay-more-attention-to-health-of-expats-1193483 accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xii] Faris Al Abadan, Kuwait’s expatriate workforce up 21%, Zawya, July 10, 2024, available at https://www.zawya.com/en/economy/gcc/kuwaits-expatriate-workforce-up-21-h2gw3a9j accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xiii] Ministry of Foreign Affairs, State of Kuwait, available at https://www.mofa.gov.kw/en/ accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xiv] Helem Chapin Metz, ed. Persian Gulf States: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1993, available at https://countrystudies.us/persian-gulf-states/21.htm accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xv] Kuwait, World Bank, available at https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/65cf93926fdb3ea23b72f277fc249a72-0500042021/related/mpo-kwt.pdf accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xvi] GCC Country Economic Profile State of Kuwait, EU-GCC Dialogue on Economic Diversification, European Union, October 2023, available at https://www.eeas.europa.eu/sites/default/files/documents/2023/GCC%20Country%20Economic%20Profile%20-%20Kuwait%20October%202023.pdf accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xvii] Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), available at https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/24.htm#:~:text=The%20Organization%20of%20the%20Petroleum,Kuwait%2C%20Saudi%20Arabia%20and%20Venezuela accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xviii] Kuwait Investments in Africa Valued at $28 Billion, Kuwait Times, May 22, 2024, available at https://kuwaittimes.com/article/14633/kuwait/other-news/kuwait-investments-in-africa-valued-at-28-billion/#:~:text=KUWAIT%3A%20The%20dean%20of%20the,development%20in%2051%20African%20countries accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xix] Goh Thean Eu, Kuwait to Set Up New Sovereign Wealth Fund, Asia Asset Management, 19 July 2023, report says available at https://www.asiaasset.com/post/27463-kuwaitswf2-gte-0718 accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xx] 2024 Investment Climate Statements: Kuwait, US Department of State, available at https://www.state.gov/reports/2024-investment-climate-statements/kuwait/ accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xxi] Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Kuwait, available at https://www.mofa.gov.kw/en/pages/economy/ accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xxii] US Security Cooperation with Kuwait, US Department of State, available at https://www.state.gov/u-s-security-cooperation-with-kuwait-2/ accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xxiii] Why the Tiny Country of Kuwait Remains a Crucial Defence Ally After 125 Years, November 20, 2024, available at https://www.forcesnews.com/middle-east/kuwait-remains-important-and-strategic-ally-uk-armed-forces-125-years accessed on December 22, 2024.

[xxiv] Development Co-operation Profiles, The Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), available at https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/development-co-operation-profiles_d8c2b749-en#:~:text=Kuwait%20provides%20development%20co%2Doperation,methodological%20notes%20for%20further%20details accessed on September 19, 2024.

[xxv] Insights and context to inform policies and global dialogue, The Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), available at https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/d8c2b749-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/5e331623-en&_csp_=b14d4f60505d057b456dd1730d8fcea3&itemIGO=oecd&itemContentType=chapter#:~:text=ODA%20to%20and%20through%20the,copy%20the%20linklink%20copied!&text=Code%20copied!,-Created%20with%20Highcharts accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xxvi] Kuwait pledges $17 million to UNHCR to support the earthquakes response efforts in Türkiye and Syria, United Nations High Commissioner to Refugees (UNHCR), March 30, 2023, available at https://www.unhcr.org/kw/en/2023/03/30/kuwait-pledges-us-17-million-to-unhcr-to-support-the-earthquakes-response-efforts-in-turkiye-and-syria/ accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xxvii] UK and Kuwait agree new partnership to provide vital aid in Gaza and Yemen, UK Government, September 04, 2024, available at https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-kuwait-agree-new-partnership-to-provide-vital-aid-in-gaza-and-yemen#:~:text=Joint%20funding%20announced%20between%20the,people%20in%20Gaza%20and%20Yemen.&text=The%20UK%20and%20Kuwait%20have,people%20in%20Gaza%20and%20Yemen accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xxviii] Abdul-Reda Assiri, Kuwait’s Foreign Policy: City-State in World Politics. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990, p.8 in Mara A Leichtman, Kuwaiti Humanitarianism: The History and Expansion of Kuwait’s Foreign Assistance Policies, Changing Landscape of Assistance to Conflict-Affected States: Emerging and Traditional Donors and Opportunities for Collaboration Policy Brief no. 11, Policy brief series edited by Agnieszka Paczynska, School for Conflict Analysis and Resolution, George Mason University/Stimson Center    available at https://www.stimson.org/wp-content/files/file-attachments/Kuwaiti%20Humanitarianism-%20The%20History%20and%20Expansion%20of%20Kuwaits%20Foreign%20Assistance%20Policies_0.pdf accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xxix] James Bowden, Foreign Policy by Stealth: Kuwait and the Arab Spring, January 2019, In book: The World Community and the Arab Spring, pp.375-394 available at https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326656303_Foreign_Policy_by_Stealth_Kuwait_and_the_Arab_Spring accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xxx] US Embassy in Kuwait, available at https://kw.usembassy.gov/policy-history/#:~:text=U.S.%20Assistance%20to%20Kuwait,-The%20United%20States&text=The%20United%20States%20provides%20military,%2C%20readiness%2C%20and%20war%20fighting accessed on September 22, 2024.

[xxxi] Elena Melkumyan, A Political History of Relations between Russia and the Gulf States, Research Paper, Arab Centre for Research and Policy Studies, December 2015.

[xxxii] Mohamed Alkhateb, Position Paper, State of Kuwait, available at 

[xxxiii] Ambassador Zhang Jianwei Gives an Exclusive Interview with Kuwait TV Program “10-minute Talk on Diplomacy”, Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the State of Kuwait, December 12, 2023, available at http://kw.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/xwdt/202312/t20231227_11213542.htm accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xxxiv] Agreement between the government of the People’s Republic of China and the government of the State of Kuwait on Mutual Visa Exemption for Holders of Diplomatic, Service, Special Passports, and Passports for Public Affairs, June 03, 2014.

[xxxv] Mordechai Chaziza, China’s Strategic Partnership with Kuwait: New Opportunities for the Belt and Road Initiative, July 2020, Contemporary Review of the Middle East 7(3).

[xxxvi] Helem Chapin Metz, ed. Persian Gulf States: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1993, available at https://countrystudies.us/persian-gulf-states/26.htm accessed on December 02, 2024.

[xxxvii] Ibrahiim Karatas, Should Kuwait Revisit its Foreign Policy?, Gulf International Forum, available at https://gulfif.org/should-kuwait-revisit-its-foreign-policy/ accessed on December 10, 2024.

[xxxviii] New Kuwait ‘Kuwait Vision 2035’, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, State of Kuwait, available at https://www.mofa.gov.kw/en/pages/kuwait-foreign-policy accessed on September 12, 2024.

[xxxix] Kristian Coates Ulrichsen, Kuwait as a Mediator in Regional Affairs: The Gulf Crises of 2014 and 2017, The International Spectator, Italian Journal of International Affairs, 2021, Volume 56 (4), Special Issue: Between the Domestic and the International: Ideational Factors, Peacebuilding and Foreign Policy in the Middle East and the Persian Gulf, Guest Editors: Olivia Glombitza and Kristian Coates Ulrichsen.

[xl] Elana DeLozier, Kuwait’s Precarious Mediation Role May Be Imperiled by the Emir’s Passing, The Washington Institute for Near East policy, Policy Watch 3384, October 05, 2020, available at https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/kuwaits-precarious-mediation-role-may-be-imperiled-emirs-passing accessed on October 22, 2024.

[xli] Kuwait’s Foreign Policy, National Foreign Assessment Centre, An Intelligence Assessment, 08 May 1981, Secret PA 81-10183, Approved for Release 23 July 2008, available at chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP06T00412R000200270001-9.pdf accessed on October 18, 2024.

[xlii] Lewis Sanders IV, Ismail Azzam, Kuwait sticks to the past for its future, DW Global Media Forum, January 10, 2020, available at https://www.dw.com/en/kuwait-emir-successor-policy/a-55105047 accessed on September 16, 2024.

[xliii] FM: Kuwait Keen on Opening New Cooperation Horizons with Russia, Kuwait News Agency, October 29, 2024, available at https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=3191927&language=en accessed on November 10, 2024.

[xliv] Kuwait Signs MoU to join SCO as Dialogue Partner, Kuwait News Agency, May 06, 2023, available at https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=3090628&language=en accessed on September 02, 2024.

[xlv] 1st European Union-Gulf Cooperation Council Summit Joint Statement, October 16, 2024.

[xlvi] Md. Muddassir Quamar, Sameena Hameed, P. R. Kumaraswamy, Persian Gulf 2023: India’s Relations with the Region, Palgrave Macmillan Singapore, pp. 163-204.

[xlvii] Ibid.

[xlviii] Kuwait greenlights tax deal with Iraq to prevent double taxation, bneIntellinews, September 22, 2024, available at https://www.intellinews.com/kuwait-greenlights-tax-deal-with-iraq-to-prevent-double-taxation-344560/ accessed on September 28, 2024.

[xlix]Kuwait continues to seek stronger relations with world, Kuwait Times, October 01, 2024, available at https://kuwaittimes.com/article/19598/kuwait/other-news/kuwait-continues-to-seek-stronger-relations-with-world/ accessed on 23 October 2024.

[l] Kuwait plans to increase engagement with African continent, The Times, June 11, 2022, available at https://timeskuwait.com/news/kuwait-plans-to-increase-engagement-with-african-continent/ accessed on September 12, 2024.

[li] Nasser al Khamri, Kuwait eyes broader cooperation with African countries, Zawya, December 11, 2023, available at https://www.zawya.com/en/economy/gcc/kuwait-eyes-broader-cooperation-with-african-countries-ts2dkep3 accessed on September 22, 2024.

[lii] Kuwait keen on Boosting Cooperation with African Nations, Kuwait News Agency, July 14, 2023, available at https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=3100100&language=en accessed on September 12, 2024.

[liii] KFAED backs Nations, eyes broader cooperation with Latin America, Caribbean, Kuwait News Agency, March 06, 2024, available at https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=3140879&Language=en accessed on September 12, 2024.

[liv] Kuwait to Partner with China on USD 800 million Solar Power Project, November 27, 2024, available at https://www.energetica-india.net/news/kuwait-to-partner-with-china-on-usd-800-million-solar-power-project accessed on November 29, 2024.

[lv] Khizar Niazi, Kuwait Looks towards the East: Relations with China, Middle East Institute Policy Brief, September 2009, Number 26, available at chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/106361/No_26_Kuwait_looks_towards_the_east.pdf accessed on September 12, 2024.

[lvi] Aida Haidar, Kazakh – Kuwaiti Relations Reach New Heights, Says Kuwait’s Ambassador, The Astana Times, August 10, 2023, available at https://astanatimes.com/2023/08/kazakh-kuwaiti-relations-reach-new-heights-says-kuwaits-ambassador/ accessed on September 22, 2024.

[lvii] Giuliano Bifolchi, Kuwait and Tajikistan: A Developing Partnership in Security and Economic Affairs, Special Eurasia, Geopolitical Report ISSN 2785-2598 Volume 48 Issue 4, available at https://www.specialeurasia.com/2024/11/07/kuwait-tajikistan-cooperation/ accessed on October 20, 2024.

[lviii] Kuwait, Tajikistan…Solid Ties with Aspirations of Further Cooperation, Kuwait News Agency, November 02, 2024, available at https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=3192654&language=en accessed on November 12, 2024.

[lix] Asna Wajid, The diplomatic surge between the GCC and Central Asian states, IISS, November 13, 2023, available at https://www.iiss.org/online-analysis/online-analysis/2023/11/the-diplomatic-surge-between-the-gcc-and-central-asian-states/ accessed on September 12, 2024.

[lx] Saima Shabbir, Pakistan’s PM arrives in Kuwait on two-day visit to sign multibillion-dollar deals, Arab News, 28 November 2023, available at https://www.arabnews.com/node/2416906/pakistan   accessed on September 18, 2024.

[lxi] The Prime Minister and the Crown Prince of the State of Kuwait hold a bilateral meeting on the side-lines of the 79th Session of the UN General Assembly, Permanent Mission of Pakistan to the United Nations, 24 September 2024, available at  https://pakun.org/news/the-prime-minister-and-the-crown-prince-of-the-state-of-kuwait-hold-a-bilateral-meeting-on-the-side-lines-of-the-79th-session-of-the-un-general-assembly accessed on September 28, 2024.

[lxii] Agreement for the Promotion and Reciprocal Protection of Investments between the Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh and The Government of the State of Kuwait, signed on 04 May 2016, available at chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://moind.portal.gov.bd/sites/default/files/files/moind.portal.gov.bd/page/5cfbabe4_8247_40e6_a819_ea92b66f8336/Kuwait-Biateral%20Agreement.pdf   accessed on September 28, 2024.

[lxiii] Bilateral Relationship between Bangladesh and the State of Kuwait, Embassy of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh in Kuwait, available at  https://kuwait.mofa.gov.bd/en/site/page/Bilateral-Relation accessed on September 28, 2024.

[lxiv] Md. Muddassir Quamar, Sameena Hameed, P. R. Kumaraswamy, Persian Gulf 2023: India’s Relations with the Region, Palgrave Macmillan Singapore, p. 201.