Indian Council of World Affairs

Abstract: The paper would explore India’s ancient relations with Vietnam through the historical and cultural perspective. The civilizational connect was established with the help of ancient trade routes, movement or the travels done by teachers, monks, traders and people intermingling with the local population. This cultural assimilation that took place in the kingdom of Champa, has facilitated building a pathway that continues to contribute to the healthy exchange of ideas, building bridges between the past and the present. The paper will bring forth the role of the Cham Balamon people, bearing testament to ancient Sanatan ties of the past, being carried forward in the present. This paper will explore the ancient Sanatan linkages between Kalinga and Champa, assessing the impact of such linkages in the present day. 

India’s ancient civilisation linkages

The role of our historical and civilisational connect, which has played an important role in the promotion of national interest and strengthening the roots of diplomacy, has never before been explicitly stated as part of India’s foreign policy, like it has been done in the last few years.[i] India’s ancient linkages and the sharing of social, cultural and religious practises and its impact has been widely acknowledged, which however, has not been commensurate in the discourse of Indian foreign policy with the vast number of its historical, cultural, culinary, artistic, architectural and knowledge-based resources at its disposal.[ii] While there exists a discourse and also a policy, no matter how muted, regarding India’s outreach, there is much room for expanding the scope of enhancing its diplomatic and people-to-people connects as practised so far by India, studying its civilisational linkages with regions in the past.

India’s ties and connections with the outside world, dates back to its myriad ancient kingdoms of the past. The external trade links of the Harappan civilisation extended as far as Tell Brak in Syria to Namazga-Tepe and Altyn-Tepe in Turkmenistan to Rasal-Junayz in Oman. Based on the archaeological finds, these linkages are dated to c. 2600–1300 BC.[iii] Moreover, it is certain that ancient Indian kingdoms interacted with the outside world since early antiquity, and objects and ideas travelled with ease across borders through both inland and maritime routes at different points in Indian history.[iv] Thus, intangible heritage, such as philosophy, scientific thought, religious ideas and even music travelled across ancient borders to Greece, the Horn of Africa, the Roman Empire, the Islamic world, Central Asia, China, Japan, South and South-East Asia, and Europe. Traders, monks and pilgrims, and seafarers were the carriers of this knowledge.[v] Unlike the controversial tribute system[vi] that was in practice in China, the Indian civilisational linkages were more harmonious, acceptable and enriching.

This paper will try to identify the civilisational linkages of the Indian empire of Kalinga with the ancient Cham empire in Vietnam, the culture, traditions and religious practices that flowed like a river, establishing deep connections between civilisations, rooted in history and flourishing in the present.

The Ancient Kingdom of Kalinga and Cham

While there are innumerable ancient cultural linkages from Eastern and Southern kingdoms of ancient and middle India, the role of Kalinga is mention-worthy, especially in the spread of Sanatan, Buddhist and Jain faith, knowledge and culture. Kalinga, which existed in modern-day state of Orissa, had played a pioneering role in the maritime relations of India, especially with Sri Lanka, the Indonesian islands of Java, Bali, Sumatra and Borneo, Burma, Funan (Cambodia), Siam (Thailand), Champa (Vietnam), Laos, Philippines and China.^[vii] In the course of its maritime interaction with those countries, Kalinga not only disseminated its own culture and civilisation but also contributed significantly to the dissemination of Indian culture there, establishing its civilisational linkages. It influenced the history, culture, polity, society and religious life of the people of those countries to a considerable extent.

Civilisational Maritime Trade Link: Kalinga’s closeness with Champa is remarkable. The ancient kingdom of Champa comprised the present states of north and south Vietnam, or old Annam (excluding Tonkin and Cochin-China), with the exception of three northern districts of Than Hoa, Nghe An and Ha Tinh. It was a long, narrow strip of territory sandwiched between the mountains on the west and the sea in the east and intersected by innumerable spurs of hills running in various directions.^[viii] Chams, the people of Champa, actively participated in the maritime trade, and articles like camphor, sandalwood, porcelain ware, lead, tin, etc., constituted their main items of export. Similarly, objects, such as shouldered adzes, knobbed pottery, glass beads and other Champa period artefacts have been discovered in and around Kalinga There was also a commercial relationship between India and Vietnam in ancient times. According to R.C. Majumdar,^[ix] Indians must have been acquainted with Champa by way of trade and commerce long before they established their political supremacy in that region. One of the major trade routes between India and China passed through the coast of ancient Champa. The early Indian voyagers and traders arriving on the Malay coast were crossing the Gulf of Siam to reach Oc Eo in the modern-day Óc Eo commune of Thoại Sơn District in An Giang Province of southern Vietnam. Oc Eo was an important port of ancient Champa, and from the second century CE to the sixth century CE, it served as an ‘entrepot’ for the voyagers.[x] It has yielded beads, seals with Sanskrit inscriptions, gold medallions and rare pieces of statuary, which indicate its contact with Indians during the ancient period.

Iconographic, Cultural and Religious Ties: The Sanatana culture of India remarkably influenced the society, culture, religious institutions, literature, art and architecture of Champa. There are references to Vedic sacrifices and ritual practices in the inscriptions of Champa. The Hindu trinity (worship of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesvara, or Shiva) was well known in Champa. Icons of various gods and goddesses like Brahma, Vishnu, Indra, Surya, Kubera, Ganesha, Kartikeya, Lakshmi and Sarasvati have also been found in different places in Champa. God Shiva, in Champa, was worshipped in both the forms—the human and the linga—the latter having been more popular in comparison with the image worship as in India. In fact, in the ancient text, the Vayu Puran, Vietnam was referred to as ‘Anga Dvipa’. According to the Jataka tales, it is believed that the people of Champa in Anga established another Champa in Vietnam.[xi] A number of kings of Champa were well versed in the Vedas and other ancient Indian literature like the Dharmashastras, Dharmasutras, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Chams were very familiar with the contents of the Ramayana. King Prakashdharma of Champa (c. 653–c. 670 CE) constructed a temple for Valmiki at Tar Ken, which is a very rare practice in India. In Wen-hsien T’ung-k’ao, a Chinese work by Ma Tuan-lin, a clear picture of the Cham society in the second half of the fourth century CE is given where it is narrated that the royal dress, ornaments, funeral customs and rites of mourning of Champa were similar to those obtaining in India.[xii] Buddha images of Amaravati style pertaining to early centuries CE have also been found from Dong-duong near Danang in central Vietnam. In the southern part of Vietnam, the Vo-Chanh Rock Inscription (on palaeographic grounds assigned to the second or third century CE), which is in Sanskrit, refers to the first kingdom in Champa by the royal family of Sri Mara, who was supposed to be a Kalingan.^[xiii] According to the Chinese chronicles, King Sri Mara was a Shaiva by faith.^[xiv] He calls himself in the aforesaid rock edict to have been a Kalingan in origin and a descendant of the Varmas. The rock edict further describes how he showed great mercy and favour to his subjects at the time of his coronation. Thus, a Hindu dynasty was founded in Champa by Sri Mara [depicted to be a Kalinga descendant] in the second century CE.^[xv] When there was no heir to the throne, the practice of letting loose an elephant to choose the successor, which used to be practised in the early medieval period towards the closing years of the Ganga rule in Odisha, was also followed in Champa. The Jain Uttaradhyayana Sutra^[xvi] mentions the maritime contact between Kalinga and Champa and the importance of Pithunda (an ancient port town in Kalinga). Pilgrims as well as traders of Champa, since the time of Mahavira, used to come to Pithunda as it was a business hub as well as an important centre of Jain religion. This Pithunda of the Uttaradhyayana Sutra has been identified with the Pithunda metropolis of Kalinga mentioned in the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela and the Pityndra metropolis of Ptolemy. The aforementioned Jain text further states that a merchant of Champa, named Palita, came to Pithunda for trade and stayed there, having married the daughter of a Kalingan merchant. While returning to Champa, his wife gave birth to a son in the ship during the voyage. Hence, his son was named Samudrapala.^[xvii] The religious icons and symbols that have been prevalent in India for thousands of years also prevailed in Champa with the worship and great popularity of the Hindu trinity. Vishnu was worshipped in Champa as Madhava, Vikram and Hari.^[xviii] A famous king of Champa named Sriprakasdharma of the seventh century CE built a temple for Vishnu Purushottama at Duong-Mong. The worship of Purushottam Vishnu in the kingdom of Champa during the seventh century CE suggests a relationship with the worship of Purushottama Jagannath, which must have been in practice by that time in Kalinga. In the Kautara region of southern Champa, the prevalence of shakti worship was there during the seventh and eighth centuries CE. Vicitrasagara constructed a beautiful temple in the eighth century CE for worshiping Bhagavati Kautaresvri, also known as Devi Bhagavati, the presiding deity of Champa. The Chams, being influenced by the Sanatana culture, adopted dietary practises; widows did not remarry; and the queen performed sati after the death of the king.^[xix]

The Kiu-lien or the Kula Connect: From the analysis of the Kalingan link with Champa, the important thing that catches our eyes is the use of another name for the Chams, i.e., Kiu-lien. It is evident from the Chinese records that in the year c. 137 CE, about 10,000 Kiu-liens, a warrior tribe from beyond the frontier of their territories, attacked their southernmost districts, destroyed the Chinese forts and occupied the territory.^[xx] These people, who seem to have possessed great military skill and organisation, ultimately formed the kingdom of Champa with the conquered territory of the Chinese empire.^[xxi] The Kiu-liens left epigraphic records in Sanskrit. A.P. Patnaik says that these Kiu-liens were quite likely a branch of the kula people of Burma^[xxii] whom Gerini has described as people from Kalinga or kula now employed in Burma designating people from South India.^[xxiii] H.B. Sarkar, a dedicated scholar on the history of Southeast Asia, has clearly identified the Kula people of Burma with the Kalinga people.^[xxiv] Scholars, therefore, opined that these Kula people, or Kiu-liens, migrated from Kalinga in large numbers either by land route or through the sea to Burma and to further lower regions of IndoChina sometime during the first century CE or still earlier period. Now we find place names like Kuliana, Kolipala (Kolapala), Kulisuta (Kulasuta), Pariakoli (Parikula), Kolidiha (Kuladiha) and Kanjakula, etc., in the Mayurbhanja district of Odisha to indicate the ancient abode of the Kula people of Kalinga before their migration.^[xxv] The contact between Kalinga and Champa can also be established archaeologically. The discovery of bar celts from the excavated site of Sankarjang in the Angul district of Odisha revealed that this earliest musical instrument of Odisha was parallel to those unearthed in Vietnam.^[xxvi] It is also significant to mention that the srivatsa motif of the Hathigumpha Inscription of Emperor Kharavela became later on enormously common in the coins of Oc Eo in Vietnam to Arakan.^[xxvii]

Architectural Commonality: Mi-son in Champa was known as the temple city because of the construction of a number of Hindu temples. The Cham temple scheme, like the early Odishan temples, consists of a main shrine in the centre and a secondary one. All the shrines of Champa were arranged on a square terrace, and above these rose three towers. The window openings were of exquisite design, having ‘baluster-shaped mullions’ like the Rajarani temple at Bhubaneswar in Odisha.^[xxviii] The decorative motifs of the Mi-son group of temples, particularly the makara torana (crocodile-shaped archways) remind us of the beautifully carved makara heads in the archways in front of the Muktesvara temple of Bhubaneswar. The form of dancing Shiva balancing on the back of the bull itself is also represented on some monuments of Champa.^[xxix] There is a similarity between the script of Kalinga and those used in the fourth-century CE ChoDinh and Hon-Cut inscriptions of King Bhadravarman.^[xxx] The regions that exhibited archaeological evidence include (1) Quang Nam, specifically the Thu Bon Valley, which encompasses the sites of My Son, Tra Kieu, and Dong Duong; (2) the area of Nha Trang featuring the Po Nagar complex; and (3) the region of Phan Rang.[xxxi] In addition to vast architectural complexes such as in Dong Duong, the art of the Chams included small, freestanding sculptures such as the sculpture of Uma, an elegant goddess and wife of Siva. The earlier Cham architecture at My Son was similar to towers and arcades, with carved stone altar tables supporting images. In Binh Dinh, there are silver towers with pointed horseshoe chaitya arches. Later on, Indian influence declined, and huge, crude figures were executed in place of fine art.[xxxii] From the above observations in the light of both literary and archaeological evidence, one can state that Kalinga, or ancient Odisha, had brisk commercial as well as cultural contact with the kingdom of ancient Champa.

The Path Ahead: The Balamon People of Vietnam

When we observed the linkages between Kalinga and Cham, we were not recalling a trek through history but speaking of a living culture with roots going back thousands of years. Presently, a small number of the Vietnamese Cham (also known as the Eastern Cham) follow Islam and a relative few follow Mahayana Buddhism, but the majority are Hindu. These are called the Balamon (Brahman) people. Today, Cham Balamon people and their traditions are surprisingly intact. Their temples are still standing. Their festivals are still celebrated, and the traditional Hindu ceremonies and worship continue. Life’s passages, such as graduations, weddings, births and deaths, are still observed in accordance with the Hindu traditions.[xxxiii]

Most of the Balamon Chams live in villages around Phan Thiet and Phan Rang on Vietnam’s south-central coast, while the smaller group of Bani Cham are predominantly based in the Mekong Delta around Chau Doc. Both groups make their living from fishing, farming, and making handicrafts.[xxxiv]

While maintaining their historical roots, it should be noted that the Cham Balamon as well as the Cham Bani (following Islam) are a matriarchal society. The children bear their mother’s family name. They live in groups: sisters and their mother live together. The youngest daughter lives with her parents and inherits the biggest share of properties. The sons do not receive anything.[xxxv] The women are highly skilled in pottery and weaving, particularly brocade, and the men play unique musical instruments, such as the xaranai, a type of clarinet and the paranung, a cylindrical drum. These are put to good use in Cham festivals like the Kate Festival, which honours past kings and ancestors and takes place in late September or early October each year.[xxxvi]

To sum it up, though the above observation has been singularly based on the linkages that were established between Kalinga and Cham, civilisational inheritance kept on growing with Indian traders travelling to Vietnam during the same period for commerce, taking along with them Buddhist monks to Vietnamese shores where they soon got assimilated with the local population and contributed to the local economy. The influence and growth of Buddhism in Vietnam also date back to that period.[xxxvii]

Going by the historical narrative that complements the current priorities of India’s engagement strategy, India values Vietnam as an old friend in the present regional and global context. To strengthen cultural linkages between India and Vietnam, key initiatives include promoting exchanges in Buddhism, particularly through the restoration of Cham temple complexes at the My Son UNESCO World Heritage site, organising cultural events highlighting Indian art, dance, and festivals through the Swami Vivekananda Cultural Centre in Hanoi, and facilitating increased travel between the two countries for cultural immersion, with a focus on shared traditions like Yoga, and traditional medicine. While celebrating 53 years of diplomatic relations, the role of the Vietnam-India Cultural Exchange Program and Vietnam-India Friendship Association needs to be further strengthened to continue unearthing the deep-rooted ancient familial linkages that have been established thousands of years ago. It is to study and celebrate the several similarities in culture and customs between the two countries, including rice culture, ancestor worship, a pluralistic view of the universe and the world, and the importance of buffalo and rice in culture and worship rituals, which offers a community of culture and sharing of living traditions based on the idea of intimate relations between nature and living beings.

To conclude, connecting back to the ancient and the modern will act as a bridge to bring the two ancient civilisations together. The depth of diplomacy is culture. India harnessing its shared culture potential with Vietnam in contemporising the Cham civilisation will truly not just distinguish but also define the 21st century’s spirit of Indian diplomacy.

*****

*Dr. Dhrubajyoti Bhattacharjee, Research Fellow, Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA)
Disclaimer: The views expressed are personal.

Endnotes 

[i] Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, New York: Basic Books, 1990.

[ii] Salil Shetty and Tara Sahgal, ‘India’s Soft Power: Challenges and Opportunities’, Occasional Paper, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies, New Delhi, December 2019.

[iii] Dilip K. Chakrabarti, The Oxford Companion to Indian Archaeology: The Archaeological Foundations of Ancient India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006.

[iv] Arpita Mitra, India’s Civilisational Ties with the World An Underexplored Theme in India’s Soft Power Discourse, Journal of Defence Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1, January–March 2023, pp. 45–70

[v] Arpita Mitra, India’s Civilisational Ties with the World An Underexplored Theme in India’s Soft Power Discourse, Journal of Defence Studies, Vol. 17, No. 1, January–March 2023, pp. 45–70

[vi]  The tribute system embodied a set of institutions and social and diplomatic norms that dominated China’s relations with the non-Chinese world for two millennia, until the system’s collapse toward the end of the 19th century. There are clear contradictions in the enduring Chinese discourse and varied practices of the tribute system. The precise meaning of the tribute system is contested. It is sometimes said to have principally served the instrumental purpose of managing China’s trade with its neighbours and of instigating frontier pacification. It is also claimed to have been constitutive of a Sinocentric Chinese world order in historical East Asia. The Tribute System, Oxford Bibliographies, April 2013, https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199920082/obo-9780199920082-0069.xml#:~:text=The%20tribute%20system%20(chaogong%20tizhi,occasional%20breakdowns%20and%20constant%20reconfigurations. Accessed on January 29, 2025; John Hobson and Shizhi Zhang, The Return of the Chinese Tribute System? Re-viewing the Belt and Road Initiative, Global Studies Quarterly, Volume 2, Issue 4, October 2022, pp1-11

[vii] Dr. Benudhar Patra, Kalinga and Champa : A Study in Ancient Maritime Relations, Odisha Review, November 2017, pp. 22-26

[viii] R.C.Majumdar, Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East, Vol.I, Lahore, 1927, p.3; Champa (History and Culture of An Indian Colonial Kingdom in the Far East, 2nd -16th Century A.D), New Delhi , 2008, p.3; R.C.Majumdar, Hindu Colonies in the Far East, Calcutta , 1963 and 1991, p.113.

[ix] R.C.Majumdar,  Champa (History and Culture of An Indian Colonial Kingdom in the Far East, 2nd -16th Century A.D), New Delhi , 2008,p.21

[x] Dr. Benudhar Patra, Kalinga and Champa: A Study in Ancient Maritime Relations, Odisha Review, November 2017, pp. 22-26

[xi] Nehal Rajvanshi, Champa: One Kingdom Two Countries?, Peepul Tree Stories, February 24, 2023, https://www.peepultree.world/livehistoryindia/story/history-daily/story-of-champa?srsltid=AfmBOoq_9oYTLX-IDyPdRir7MN_lzeocr2HpezC7TKcO5xexkI_WsjZg Accessed on February 03, 2025

[xii] H.B.Sarkar, Cultural Relations Between India and South-East Asian Countries, New Delhi, 1985, pp.13 and 157

[xiii] P.C.Rath, ‘Maritime Activities of Kalinga’, Journal of Kalinga Historical Research Society, Vol.1, No.4, (March, 1947), p.350

[xiv] S.P.Das, Glories of Ancient Orissa, Sambalpur, 1965, p.56

[xv] R.C.Majumdar,  Champa (History and Culture of An Indian Colonial Kingdom in the Far East, 2nd -16th Century A.D), New Delhi , 2008,p.21

[xvi] J.Charpentier (ed.), Uttaradhyayana Sutra, Uppasala, 1922, Pt.II, p.61.

[xvii] J.Charpentier (ed.), Uttaradhyayana Sutra, Uppasala, 1922, Pt.II, p.61

[xviii] M.N.Deshpande, ‘Champa, An Outpost of Indian Culture’, in: L.Chandra (ed.), India’s Contribution to World Thought and Culture, Madras, 1970, p.446

[xix] P.P.Mishra, ‘Contact between Orissa and South East Asia’, Journal of Orissan History, Vol.I, No.2 (July, 1980), p.18

[xx] R.C.Majumdar, Hindu Colonies in the Far East, p.114; R.C.Majumdar, Champa, p.17.

[xxi] A.P.Patnaik, ‘Kalingan Link with Countries of South-East Asia’, Orissa Review, Vol.XLVIII, No.9 (April, 1992), p.29

[xxii] A.P.Patnaik, ‘Kalingan Link with Countries of South-East Asia’, Orissa Review, Vol.XLVIII, No.9 (April, 1992), p.29

[xxiii] G.E.Gerini, Researches on Ptolemy’s Geography of Eastern Asia (Further India and Indo-Malay Archipelago), London, 1909; New Delhi, 1974, p.103.

[xxiv] H.B.Sarkar, Cultural Relations Between India and South-East Asian Countries, New Delhi, 1985, p.109

[xxv] A.P.Patnaik, ‘Kalingan Link with Countries of South East Asia’, p. 29

[xxvi] P.Yulu et al, ‘Shankarjang- A Metal Period Burial Site in the Dhenkanala Uplands of Orissa,’ South Asian Archaeology, Rome, 1987, pp.581-584.

[xxvii] K.S.Behera, ‘Maritime Contacts of Orissa: Literary and Archaeological Evidence’, Utkal Historical Research Journal, Vol.V (1994), p.64

[xxviii] P.Brown, Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods), Bombay, 1959 (Fourth Edition), p.192.

[xxix] K.K.Basa, ‘Cutural Relations between Orissa and South-East Asia: An Archaeological Perspective’, in: P.K.Mishra and J.K.Samal (eds.), Comprehensive History and Culture of Orissa, Vol.1, Pt.II (Early Times to 1568 A.D), New Delhi, 1997, p.737 .

[xxx] N.K.Sahu, Odiya Jatira Itihas (Odia), Pt.I, Bhubaneswar, 1974 and 1977, p.402.

[xxxi] Vickery, Michael. “Champa Revised.” The Cham of Vietnam, edited by Trần Kỳ Phương and Bruce M. Lockhart, NUS Press, 2011, pp. 364; Shivani Badgaiya, Exploring the Growth of Hinduism and other Hindu Religious Traditions in Champa, India Foundation, January 2, 2025, https://indiafoundation.in/articles-and-commentaries/exploring-the-growth-of-hinduism-and-other-hindu-religious-traditions-in-champa/#_ednref23 Accessed on February 03, 2025

[xxxii] Bhargava, Piyush. “On the Art of Champa.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 68, 2007, pp. 1460; Shivani Badgaiya, Exploring the Growth of Hinduism and other Hindu Religious Traditions in Champa, India Foundation, January 2, 2025, https://indiafoundation.in/articles-and-commentaries/exploring-the-growth-of-hinduism-and-other-hindu-religious-traditions-in-champa/#_ednref23 Accessed on February 03, 2025

[xxxiii] Vrndavan Brannon Parker, Cultures: Vietnam’s Champa Kingdom Marches on, Hinduism Today, April 1, 2014, https://www.hinduismtoday.com/magazine/april-may-june-2014/2014-04-cultures-vietnama8099s-champa-kingdom-marches-on/ Accessed on January 29, 2025

[xxxiv] Ron Emmons, The Hidden Cham, Remote Islands, January 28, 2025, https://www.remotelands.com/travelogues/the-hidden-cham/ Accessed on February 03, 2025

[xxxv] Thanh Nga, Cham Matriarchy, The Voice of Vietnam, August 26, 2013, https://vovworld.vn/en-US/colorful-vietnamvietnams-54-ethnic-groups/cham-matriarchy-176290.vov Accessed on February 03, 2025

[xxxvi] Ron Emmons, The Hidden Cham, Remote Islands, January 28, 2025, https://www.remotelands.com/travelogues/the-hidden-cham/ Accessed on February 03, 2025

[xxxvii] Rajaram Panda, India – Vietnam Relations: Prospects and Challenges, Liberal Studies, Vol. 2, Issue 1, January – June 2017, pp. 57-73