Indian Council of World Affairs

Abstract: After an unpopular martial law decree by President Yoon Suk-yeol of South Korea, he now stands impeached by the National Assembly through a 204-85 vote mandate by the parliamentarians. This article explores the background of the declaration of martial law, the outcome and the implications upon the South Korean polity, especially in the realms of its future foreign policy trajectory. 

Introduction 

On the night of 3 December 2024, President Yoon Suk-yeol, in a live telecast, declared martial law, marking an unprecedented development in the history of South Korea’s polity. This was the first martial law declared ever since South Korea became a parliamentary democracy in 1987. The last time martial law was imposed in South Korea was in May 1980, during the Gwangju/Kwangju Uprising.[1]

The late-night televised announcement by President Yoon left the country in much disarray. The declaration sparked widespread protests as the public, filled with angst and disbelief, took to the streets and even marched to the National Assembly demanding the lifting of the martial law. National Assembly lawmakers from the opposition parties were seen climbing over fences and walls to enter the Parliament premises at midnight hour to vote against the martial law. The unfortunate incident, which stood as a widely unpopular decree, was a stark reminder for many citizens of their turbulent political history over 40 years ago. 

Reasons for Issuing Martial Law 

The immediate reason cited by President Yoon for issuing the martial law during his televised address at 10:23 pm (Seoul time) on 3 December 2024[2] was to eradicate “pro-North Korean forces and to protect the constitutional order of freedom.”[3] President Yoon accused the opposition parties of paralysing the government by indulging in “anti-state” activities as they repeatedly blocked his personnel appointments while trying to unilaterally introduce reduced budget proposals.[4] President Yoon even stated that through this martial law, he would “rebuild and protect the free Republic of Korea.”[5]

The opposition Democratic Party (DP), through the parliamentary budget committee, had aimed to pass a downsized budget through a plenary parliamentary session on 2 December 2024 before the National Assembly Speaker, Woo Won-shik, put the plan on hold and urged the rival parties to reach a compromise by 3 December 2024. However, instead of a compromise, martial law was imposed by the South Korean President on the night of 3 December 2024, which sowed chaos and uncertainty in one sweeping move. 

The root of the disorder in President Yoon Suk-yeol’s governance can be traced back to the number of seats won out of a total of 300 in the National Assembly elections since 2020. The Parliament of South Korea has been dominated by the Democratic Party (DP) since 2020 with 180 seats, whereas the People Power Party (PPP), which was then known as the United Future Party, had 103 seats.[6] Moon Jae-in of the DP was President of South Korea till 2022, after which President Yoon Suk-yeol of the PPP was elected to office in May 2022. This meant that President Yoon Suk-yeol of the PPP had to face the DP as opposition with a majority in the National Assembly since 2022. 

The 22^nd National Assembly Elections held in April 2024, were supposed to be a breakthrough moment for the PPP to gain a majority while President Yoon was in power. However, the DP retained majority of the Parliament with 175 seats, while the PPP had a total of 108 seats. This result marked the first blow to President Yoon’s future governance. He had anticipated that the wave of the Presidential election results of 2022 would perhaps carry his party forward in 2024 to decide the majority in the National Assembly. Already, the percentage of legislation enacted in the National Assembly since President Yoon’s term began in 2022 was at a meagre 29.2 per cent, which was significantly less than the 61.4 per cent rate under the previous Moon government between 2017 to 2022.[7] The results of the 22^nd National Assembly elections meant that the rate of passage of bills was to become even lower during the remaining three years of President Yoon’s term, which ends in 2027. 

Under such a predicament, President Yoon was facing an opposition entrenching itself to continue on pressing issues. Few of these matters that plagued the PPP governance of South Korea were the push for investigation into allegations against the first lady,[8] allegations against the Presidential Office for accusations of inappropriately interfering with a military investigation into last year's death of a young Marine,[9] impeachment motions against appointments[10] by the President,[11] and the opposition attempts at unilaterally trying to push a downsized budget proposal.[12]

Outcome of the Martial Law 

After the declaration of martial law, an emergency late-night session, around 1:00 am, was led by the opposition parties at the National Assembly. Reportedly, 190 out of 300 lawmakers voted to pass a resolution for the repeal of the martial law approximately two and a half hours after President Yoon’s declaration.[13] As per the Constitution of the Republic of Korea, Article 77 Clause 5 states that the votes required to lift the martial law is a simple majority, after which the President shall comply.[14]

Immediately after passing the resolution, the opposition lawmakers who gathered at the National Assembly to vote for the lifting of the martial law denounced the declaration as “illegal and unconstitutional.”[15] Finally, the martial law was lifted by the President at around 4:30 am during a cabinet meeting, which meant the country was in a state of emergency for approximately six hours.[16] 

Additionally, the budget proposal that was the last agenda in the National Assembly before President Yoon’s declaration of martial law on 3 December 2024 now stands passed. The downsized budget at 673.4 trillion won ($470.5 billion), down 4.1 trillion won from the initial plan proposed by the government, was passed by the National Assembly on 10 December 2024.[17] The reduced annual budget makes notable reductions to the reserve fund and special activity expenses for the presidential office’s secretariat and national security office, as well as the prosecution, state audit agency and police.[18]

This is the first time in the constitutional history of South Korea that a budget plan submitted was passed in the plenary session without bipartisan agreement with a 183-94 vote, including one abstention.[19] The opposition DP leader Lee Jae -myung stated that the swift passage of the bill would help resolve the current crisis, whereas the ruling government warned that the budget cut could paralyse basic government functions.[20]

Impeachment of President Yoon 

After the first failed impeachment attempt on 7 December 2024,[21] with the PPP lawmakers boycotting the parliamentary votes to deny a two-third majority needed to suspend Yoon’s presidential powers, the second attempt on 14 December 2024 finally decided the impeachment of President Yoon with a 204-85 vote.[22] In what was seen as growing internal strife and disagreement with President Yoon’s martial law, 12 PPP lawmakers voted in favour of the impeachment.[23] President Yoon’s duties were immediately suspended, and Prime Minister Han Duck-soo assumed the role of acting President.[24]

Within 180 days since the adoption of the impeachment, the Constitutional Court of South Korea will decide to uphold or reject the National Assembly’s decision. In case the decision is upheld by the court, Yoon will be constitutionally removed from office, and a snap Presidential election will be held within 60 days of the decision. Subsequently, if the court rejects the impeachment vote, Yoon would be reinstated and return to office.[25] The first preparatory hearings of the impeachment trial of President Yoon Suk-yeol by the Constitutional Court have been fixed for 27 December 2024.[26]

Moreover, facing charges for insurrection, Yoon Suk-yeol has also become the first sitting President in the history of South Korea, after the country became a parliamentary democracy, to be banned from leaving the country while he faces investigations for treason.[27] Pending the decision of the Constitutional Court, he will also become the second President after Park Geun-hye in 2017 to be impeached if the court upholds the National Assembly decision. 

Status of the People Power Party 

Following the passage of the impeachment vote for President Yoon, the Supreme Council of the PPP, which primarily consists of the five elected executive committee members, expressed their intent to resign. This development resulted in Han Dong-hoon, leader of the PPP, announcing he would step down shortly after the impeachment of President Yoon.[28] His shifting stance amid the crisis to either support or oppose the impeachment created much discontentment within the PPP. Eventually, Han Dong-hoon was one of the few PPP lawmakers to speak in favour of the impeachment after learning that Yoon directly ordered Hong Jang-won, the first deputy director of the National Intelligence Service, to arrest key politicians, including him, right after declaring martial law.[29]

Currently, the PPP is faced with a crisis of facing the public angst. The larger public opinion has been that South Korea was not facing a “time of war, armed conflict, or similar national emergency,” as stipulated in Article 77 of the Republic of Korea Constitution, which evidently proved that Yoon indisputably violated the Constitution.[30] However, as the majority of the PPP lawmakers sought to reject the impeachment vote, with only 12 out of 108 PPP lawmakers crossing over to vote for the impeachment, the larger image of the party is going to face much public scrutiny if the next snap Presidential elections are held soon. 

Key Officials under Insurrection Charges 

Defence Minister Kim Yong-hyun, who is said to have directly recommended the martial law declaration to President Yoon, resigned from his post and became the first person to be formally arrested in the investigations into insurrection charges related to the botched decree.[31] Allegations have also been made regarding the Defence Minister, that he was the one who had ordered the deployment of the drones over Pyongyang in October 2024.[32] These charges raise the possibility that the Defence Minister’s alleged involvement in planning a disturbance with North Korea was intended to create the conditions for the declaration of martial law. 

Korea National Police Agency Commissioner, Cho Ji-ho, and Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency Head, Kim Bong-sik, were also arrested without a warrant on charges of insurrection, marking it the first time in the history of South Korea that the top two police officials were detained simultaneously. The officials were also placed under a travel ban.[33] In fact, Cho Ji-ho, head of the Korean National Police Agency, was impeached by the National Assembly on 12 December 2024. At the same session, Justice Minister Park Sung-jae was also impeached over his role in the imposition of the martial law.[34]

Four-star Army General Park An-su, who was appointed to lead the martial law command during the martial law declaration, has also been suspended from his position as Army Chief of Staff.[35] General Park was formally arrested on 17 December 2024, on charges of playing a key role in an insurrection and abuse of power.[36]

Major General Moon Sang-ho, head of the Defense Intelligence Command, was also suspended for martial law involvement.[37] The three-star Army general Yeo In-hyung, former chief of the Defense Counter Intelligence Command, was also arrested after facing growing scrutiny over allegations he played a key role in facilitating the martial law declaration.[38]

Lt. Gen. Lee Jin-woo, the chief of the Capital Defense Command, was arrested by prosecutors as part of their ongoing investigation.[39] Lt. Gen. Kwak Jong-keun, head of the Army Special Warfare Command, was also arrested after being accused of sending 200 troops to seal off the National Assembly during the martial law orders.[40]

There is additionally a team of 18 investigators from the National Investigation Office (NIO) of the National Police Agency (NPA), who were investigating the presidential office in central Seoul for search and seizure of evidence related to Yoon’s martial law declaration.[41]

In due course of time, more number of key officials are expected to face investigations and arrests for insurrection charges. The immediate pushback through legal investigations into the key officials, alleged to be involved in the martial law declaration, showcases that South Korea’s constitutional and legal framework is still intact despite the attempted disorder. 

Implications on Foreign Policy Trajectory 

Soon after the impeachment was passed in the National Assembly, Prime Minister Han Duck-soo was put in charge as acting President. He is facing a challenging task to keep the government functioning amidst a turbulent, politically charged atmosphere domestically ensconced with a slowing economy and the existential threat of an unpredictable North Korea. Han Duck-soo is expected to remain in office until the Constitutional Court passes its judgement on the impeachment of President Yoon. 

The opposition DP had earlier filed complaints that Han’s name should be included in the investigations for failing to block Yoon’s attempt at martial law.[42] However, better sense seems to have prevailed, and the opposition leader of the Democratic Party, Lee Jae-myung, has stated that they will not proceed with impeachment procedures for the acting President to avoid confusion in national governance.[43] If his name were also to be included, then there would be a political vacuum in leadership, creating a graver crisis in South Korea. 

So far, Han Duck-soo is helming the reign temporarily, but he has already begun to reassure allies, calm the financial markets,[44] and hopefully will even take care of livelihood issues within the country. It will also be paramount for him to try and appease some of the staunch conservative supporters feeling betrayed by their PPP lawmakers who voted for President Yoon’s impeachment. On the other side, across the political spectrum, he will have to try to mend the image of the party from becoming maligned with a widely unpopular and understood to be constitutionally invalid martial law decree imposed by Yoon. 

In terms of foreign policy matters, there were already eulogies being written about the demise of the “Global Pivotal State” aspirations of President Yoon.[45] There have also been questions raised about the threat to recalibration of ties between South Korea and Japan,[46] which was initiated through President Yoon’s “future-oriented approach.”[47] To alleviate apprehensions of its primary ally, acting President Han has already held a conversation with US President Joe Biden[48] and has affirmed preparations to meet the incoming US President Donald Trump.[49] It was also during the call between Han and Biden, whereby they reaffirmed their commitment to develop and bolster their trilateral cooperation with Japan. Furthermore, South Korean First Vice Foreign Minister, Kim Hong-kyun, met with the Japanese Ambassador, Koichi Mizushima, in Seoul, where the Minister conveyed that the government’s policy framework will remain consistent in developing South Korea-Japan relations.[50]

Russia, which is inching closer to North Korea, had conveyed earlier on during the martial law that the chaos ensued suggests that North Korea’s security concerns about threats from the South are legitimate.[51] They even stated that the socio-political situation on the Korean Peninsula has been complicated by the incendiary activities of the US and its allies.[52] With reports regarding North Korean troops being deployed by Russia in the frontlines to fight Ukraine,[53] the dilemma of dealing with North Korea still remains for Seoul. In this political crisis, it becomes even more vital for Seoul to utilise its diplomacy to engage Moscow for improvement of bilateral ties and urge them to end military ties with Pyongyang.[54]

Prior to the impeachment vote held on 14 December 2024, President Yoon, in one of his last televised statements, had accused some Chinese nationals of “flying drones and filming a US aircraft carrier docked in the south-eastern port city of Busan,” as well as “filming the National Intelligence Service with a drone.”[55] China expressed much dissatisfaction with the remarks made by President Yoon.[56] This accusation by President Yoon on 12 December 2024, in no particular way, can be helpful for the interim administration or to the image of the PPP in the eyes of China. 

It is important to note that the ninth edition of the Trilateral Leaders’ Summit between South Korea, Japan and China was held on 27 May 2024 after a four-year hiatus during the Presidency of Yoon Suk-yeol.[57] It is also worth mentioning that the two countries had also agreed to launch a bilateral diplomatic and security dialogue for better strategic communication to help mitigate the deterioration of relations.[58] Therefore, the allegations by Yoon regarding China’s involvement in the chaos of the martial law could prove fatal for future PPP governance. The acting President, Han, is now looking at a needless foreign policy dilemma with China after all the previous attempts to mitigate tensions with Beijing. 

As long as the presidency is under the PPP, the foreign policy trajectory of South Korea is expected to remain the same for its allies. The ground reality that beckons is that Yoon could be legally ejected and a snap Presidential election held either within the next 180 days or after. The period offers the PPP time to make amends and regain the public trust. The party as a whole will most likely seek to disassociate itself from President Yoon’s decision. However, support for the PPP after the martial law has gone downhill to only 24 per cent, whereas support for the opposition DP has increased to 40 per cent.[59] This development implies that the PPP has an arduous task ahead to even contest in the event of a snap Presidential election. 

Conclusion 

After two and a half years of putting in effort of pursuing aspirations of leading South Korea as a Global Pivotal State, President Yoon was unable to carry forward with his policy agendas due to a lack of a PPP majority in the National Assembly. He had still another two and a half years left before his term got over, to perhaps strive on through negotiations and tackle the opposition demands constitutionally. However, the compromises seemed to have taken a toll on President Yoon, leading him to make the much more startling decision to declare martial law. This unprecedented decision resulted in a watershed moment in the history of South Korean polity ever since the country became a parliamentary democracy in 1987. 

The general understanding and consensus amongst the public has been that the declaration of martial law was illegal and unconstitutional. The public, which still remembers its violent political past 40 years ago, was not ready to accept President Yoon’s reasoning for the decree. The developments following the imposition of martial law, with how swiftly the National Assembly was able to assemble and vote down the emergency orders, as well as the impeachment of President Yoon, along with the arrests taking place of several key officials, are a statement to the resilience of the rule of law and democracy in South Korea. 

South Korea’s foreign policy trajectory under conservative leadership has been quite fruitful for its allies, the US and Japan. In case of a snap Presidential elections and under the circumstances of a new President from the liberal DP, keeping in mind the DP has 192 seats out of 300 in the National Assembly for the next four more years, if not the domestic policy, at least the foreign policy aspects could undergo a certain shift impacting its allies.

***** 

*Dr Tunchinmang Langel, Research Fellow, Indian Council of World Affairs (ICWA)
Disclaimer: The views expressed are personal.

Endnotes

[1] Daryl Plunk, 1985, “South Korea's Kwangju Incident Revisited,” The Heritage Foundation, September 16, 1985, https://www.heritage.org/report/south-koreas-kwangju-incident-revisited (Accessed December 10, 2024).

[2] Lee Sun-young, 2024, “What unfolded on Tuesday night in Seoul: A timeline,” The Korea Herald, December 4, 2024, https://news.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20241204050016 (Accessed December 10, 2024).

[3] Kim Eun-jung, 2024, “Yoon declares emergency martial law; parliament votes to lift declaration,” Yonhap News Agency, December 4, 2024, https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20241203012154315?section=national/politics (Accessed December 10, 2024).

[4] Anna J. Park, 2024, “President faces impeachment after bungled martial law declaration,” The Korea Times, December 4, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/356_387713.html (Accessed December 10, 2024).

[5] PBS News, 2024, “South Korean president declares emergency martial law, says opposition sides with North Korea,” December 3, 2024, https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/south-korean-president-declares-emergency-martial-law-says-opposition-sides-with-north-korea (Accessed December 10, 2024).

[6] Justin McCurry, 2020, “South Korea's ruling party wins election landslide amid coronavirus outbreak,” The Guardian, April 16, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/16/south-koreas-ruling-party-wins-election-landslide-amid-coronavirus-outbreak (Accessed December 10, 2024).

[7] Victor Cha, Jinwan Park, and Andy Lim, 2024, “South Korea’s 2024 General Election: Results and Implications”, April 10, 2024, https://www.csis.org/analysis/south-koreas-2024-general-election-results-and-implications (Accessed December 10, 2024).

[8] The Korea Times, 2024, “Rebuilding Korea Party leader Cho puts forward 10 demands for Yoon to follow after general elections”, April 22, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/04/113_373222.html (Accessed December 10, 2024).

[9] The Korea Times, 2024, “Rebuilding Korea Party leader Cho puts forward 10 demands for Yoon to follow after general elections”, April 22, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/04/113_373222.html (Accessed December 10, 2024).

[10] Son Ji-hyoung, 2024, “South Korean President Yoon Suk Yeol declares martial law,” The Korea Herald, December 3, 2024, https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20241203050117 (Accessed December 10, 2024).

[11] Kwak Yeon-soo, 2024, “Opposition files motion to impeach new broadcasting watchdog chief,” The Korea Times, August 1, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/113_379802.html (Accessed December 11, 2024).

[12] The Korea Times, 2024, “Opposition party to introduce downsized 2025 budget bill in plenary parliamentary session this week,” December 1, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/113_387395.html (Accessed December 11, 2024).

[13] Anna J. Park, 2024, “National Assembly votes unanimously to repeal martial law,” The Korea Times, December 4, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/113_387636.html (Accessed December 11, 2024).

[14] KLRI, “CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA,” https://elaw.klri.re.kr/eng_service/jomunPrint.do?hseq=1&cseq=1777703 (Accessed December 11, 2024)

[15] Choi Jeong-yoon, 2024, “Opposition leader Lee Jae-myung calls martial law declaration 'unconstitutional',” The Korea Herald, December 4, 2024, https://news.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20241204050012 (Accessed December 11, 2024).

[16] Kim Tong-hyung, 2024, “South Korea lifts president’s martial law decree after lawmakers reject military rule,” AP News, December 4, 2024, https://apnews.com/article/south-korea-yoon-martial-law-997c22ac93f6a9bece68454597e577c1 (Accessed December 11, 2024).

[17] Jo He-rim, 2024, “Passage of budget bill may relieve uncertainties,” The Korea Herald, December 10, 2024, https://news.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20241210050098 (Accessed December 11, 2024).

[18] Riyaz ul Khaliq, 2024, “South Korea passes $471.5B budget in unprecedented parliamentary vote,” Anadolu Agency, December 10, 2024, https://www.aa.com.tr/en/asia-pacific/south-korea-passes-4715b-budget-in-unprecedented-parliamentary-vote/3419984 (Accessed December 11, 2024).

[19] Yi Wonju, 2024, “Nat'l Assembly passes downsized 2025 budget bill,” Yonhap News Agency, December 10, 2024, https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20241210010300315 (Accessed December 11, 2024).

[20] Jihoon Lee, 2024, “South Korea opposition passes slashed budget without government consent,” The Print, December 10, 2024, https://theprint.in/world/south-korea-opposition-passes-slashed-budget-without-government-consent/2396363/ (Accessed December 11, 2024).

[21] The Hindu, 2024, “South Korean President Yoon avoids an impeachment attempt over martial law,” December 7, 2024, https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/south-korea-yoon-suk-yeol-impeachment- vote-updates-december-7-2024/article68958603.ece (Accessed December 12, 2024).

[22] Anna J. Park, 2024, “South Korea's National Assembly passes impeachment motion against President Yoon Suk Yeol over martial law,” The Korea Times, December 14, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/113_388433.html (Accessed December 16, 2024).

[23] Yi Wonju, 2024, “Ruling party leader Han Dong-hoon steps down following Yoon's impeachment,” Yonhap News Agency, December 16, 2024, https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20241216002700315 (Accessed December 16, 2024).

[24] Lee Yeon-woo, 2024, “Who is acting President Han Duck-soo?” The Korea Times, December 15, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/356_388496.html (Accessed December 16, 2024).

[25] Kwak Yeon-soo, 2024, “President Yoon Suk Yeol impeached. What's next?,” The Korea Times, December 14, 2024 https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/113_388437.html (Accessed December 16, 2024)

[26] Kim Seung-yeon, 2024, “(2nd LD) Constitutional Court to begin Yoon's impeachment trial Dec. 27,” Yonhap News Agency, December 16, 2024, https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20241216002352315?section=national/politics (Accessed December 16, 2024).

[27] Korea Pro, 2024, “Yoon becomes first sitting South Korean president under treason investigation,” December 9, 2024, https://koreapro.org/2024/12/yoon-becomes-first-sitting-south-korean-president-under-treason-investigation/ (Accessed December 12, 2024).

[28] Yi Wonju, 2024, “Ruling party leader Han Dong-hoon steps down following Yoon's impeachment,” Yonhap News Agency, December 16, 2024, https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20241216002700315 (Accessed December 16, 2024).

[29] Anna J. Park, 2024, “Chances of impeachment grow as ruling party leader calls for suspension of president's power,” The Korea Times, December 6, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/356_387859.html (Accessed December 12, 2024).

[30] Hankyoreh, 2024, “[Editorial] In boycotting impeachment vote, ruling party cements place on wrong side of history,” December 8, 2024, https://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/english_editorials/1171705.html (Accessed December 12, 2024).

[31] The Korea Times, 2024, “Ex-defense minister attempts suicide at detention facility,” December 11, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/251_388186.html (Accessed December 12, 2024).

[32] The Korea Times, 2024, “Ex-defense minister ordered drone infiltration to Pyongyang in Oct.: lawmaker,” December 9, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/356_387984.html (Accessed December 13, 2024).

[33] Lee Jung-joo, 2024, “Joint investigation team on Yoon launched,” The Korea Herald, December 11, 2024, https://news.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20241211050086 (Accessed December 13, 2024).

[34] The Korea Times, 2024, “Nat'l Assembly passes bill on another special counsel probe of Yoon over martial law bid,” December 12, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/113_388246.html (Accessed December 13, 2024).

[35] Hwang Joo-young, 2024, “Army chief suspended after being named suspect,” The Korea Herald, December 12, 2024, https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20241212050021 (Accessed December 13, 2024).

[36] The Korea Times, 2024, “Martial law commander arrested over alleged insurrection,” December 17, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/356_388625.html (Accessed December 17, 2024).

[37] Hwang Joo-young, 2024, “Defense intelligence commander suspended for martial law involvement,” The Korea Herald, December 10, 2024 https://news.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20241210050025 (Accessed December 13, 2024).

[38] Park Boram, 2024, “Chief of Defense Counterintelligence Command arrested in martial law probe,” Yonhap News Agency, December 14, 2024, https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20241214002800315 (Accessed December 16, 2024).

[39] The Korea Herald, 2024, “Prosecution arrests chief of Capital Defense Command,” December 13, 2024, https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20241213050096 (Accessed December 13, 2024).

[40] The Korea Times, 2024, “Army's special warfare chief arrested in martial law probe,” December 16, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/113_388553.html (Accessed December 16, 2024).

[41] Kwak Yeon-soo, 2024, “President Yoon Suk Yeol under siege in treason investigation,” The Korea Times, December 11, 2024, https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2024/12/251_388208.html (Accessed December 13, 2024).

[42] The Guardian, 2024, “Who is Han Duck-soo, South Korea’s new acting president?,” December 16, 2024, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/dec/16/who-is-han-duck-soo-south-korea-acting-president-career-yoon-suk-yeol-impeachment-yoon-suk-yeol (Accessed December 16, 2024).

[43] The Asahi Shimbun, 2024, “S. Korea’s acting president moves to reassure allies, calm markets after Yoon impeachment,” December 16, 2024, https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/15551353 (Accessed December 16, 2024).

[44] Heekyong Yang and Josh Smith, 2024, “South Korea's acting president moves to reassure allies, calm markets after Yoon impeachment,” Reuters, December 16, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/south-korean-acting-president-spoke-with-biden-by-phone-say-media-reports-2024-12-14/ (Accessed December 16, 2024).

[45] Ji Da-gyum, 2024, “[News Analysis] Vegetative presidency undermines diplomatic efforts, achievements,” The Korea Herald, December 8, 2024, https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20241208050051 (Accessed December 13, 2024).

[46] Jiji, 2024, “Martial law turmoil will likely affect Japan-South Korea ties,” The Japan Times, December 5, 2024, https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2024/12/05/japan/politics/martial-law-south-korea-japan/ (Accessed December 13, 2024).

[47] Tunchinmang Langel, 2022, “South Korea-Japan Reconciliation in Sight Amidst the North Korean Threat,” ICWA, October 27, 2022, https://icwa.in/show_content.php?lang=1&level=3&ls_id=8583&lid=5588 (Accessed December 17, 2024).

[48] Korea.net, 2024, “Acting president emphasizes 'ironclad' bilateral ties with US leader,” December 16, 2024, https://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/policies/view?articleId=263351 (Accessed December 17, 2024)

[49] Ji Da-gyum, 2024, “Seoul’s interim leadership preparing for Trump 2.0: foreign minister,” The Korea Herald, December 15, 2024, https://www.koreaherald.com/view.php?ud=20241215050043 (Accessed December 16, 2024).

[50] The Mainichi, 2024, “Japan vows close communication with South Korea after impeachment vote,” December 15, 2024, https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20241215/p2g/00m/0in/002000c (Accessed December 17, 2024).

[51] Ifang Bremer, 2024, “ROK martial law ‘chaos’ validates North Korea’s security concerns, Russia says,” NK News, December 6, 2024, https://www.nknews.org/2024/12/rok-martial-law-chaos-validates-north-koreas-security-concerns-russia-says/ (Accessed December 13, 2024).

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